This visualization of the topography of Mars was created for Maria Zuber's Carl Sagan Lecture. The camera flies over several areas of interest. The south pole, Tharsis Rise, the north pole, and Valles Marineris. This animation was created using Maya and Renderman, using MOLA Topography data. The colors represent height - dark blue is about 8km deep and white is over 14km high (as measured from an arbitrary location picked as 'sea-level'). ||

Print resolution still images in support of the MOLA: Seasonal Snow Variation story || The north pole of Mars shown colored by elevation || marsNPoleFalseCol.jpg (2730x2048) [791.2 KB] || marsNPoleFalseCola_web.png (320x240) [83.6 KB] || marsNPoleFalseCola_thm.png (80x40) [5.0 KB] || marsNPoleFalseCola_searchweb.png (320x180) [62.0 KB] || marsNPoleFalseCol.tif (2730x2048) [6.1 MB] || marsNPoleFalseCol.tif.hwshow [189 bytes] ||

The weight of the Earth's atmosphere exerts pressure on the surface of the Earth. This pressure varies from place-to-place and from time-to-time due to surface irregularities, uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, and the Earth's rotation. Differences in pressure from place-to-place cause winds to try to flow from high pressure to low pressure regions to even out the differences, but the Earth's rotation and wind friction with the surface act to slow or divert the winds. This animation shows the surface wind speeds for the whole globe from September 1, 2004, through September 5, 2004, during the period of Hurricane Frances in the western Atlantic Ocean and Typhoon Songda in the western Pacific Ocean. The highest, smoothest winds occur over the oceans where there are no surface irregularities to break up the flow, while flows over land tend to be irregular and highly variable. The highest winds occur in Hurricane Frances and Typhoon Songda, but note that the hurricane's wind speeds reduce dramatically when crossing Florida. ||

NASA's next moon mission, the Lunar Reconaissance Orbiter (LRO), will pave the way for future lunar missions by taking high resolution data of the entire lunar body. This animation zooms into one region of high interest, the lunar south pole, as seen by the 1994 Clementine mission. The possibility of frozen water is one of many reasons NASA is interested in this potential landing site. However, many of the craters in this area where frozen water sources are most likely to be found are in constant shadow which inhibited Clementine's ability to see into these craters. These shadows are the very dark areas at the poles center as seen in this animation, and one of the moon's secrets on which LRO should shed some light. ||

A satellite's ground track shows the path of its orbit on the surface of the parent body. Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter will be placed in a nearly circular polar orbit about 50 kilometers (31 miles) above the surface of the Moon, completing each orbit in a little less than two hours. The orientation of this orbit remains fixed in space, relative to the stars, while the Moon slowly rotates beneath it as they travel together around the Earth, allowing LRO to scan the entire surface of the Moon every two weeks.The animation depicts LRO's ground track over a period of 27.3 days (348 orbits) or one sidereal month, the amount of time it takes the Moon to turn once on its axis, relative to the stars. This is two days shorter than the synodic month, the period of the Moon's phases. The difference arises from the motion of the Earth. While the Moon is orbiting the Earth, the Earth is carrying them both around the Sun, changing the Sun's direction relative to the stars.Each LRO orbit is separated from the previous one by about one degree of longitude. On the Moon's surface near the equator, this corresponds to a spacing of 30 kilometers (19 miles), but the orbits converge near the poles; at 84 degrees N or S latitude, the ground distance is only 10% of the distance at the equator. At all latitudes, later LRO orbits will fill in the gaps left by earlier ones. Orbits in the latter half of the month depicted in this animation are seen to form a cross-hatch pattern that begins to fill in the gaps left during the first half of the month.The points at which the orbits cross provide an opportunity to refine our knowledge of LRO's precise position. LOLA, the LRO instrument that maps the lunar terrain by measuring surface elevation, should get the same reading for these crossing points each time it passes over them. If it doesn't, then LRO might not really be at a crossing point, meaning that its actual position differs slightly from its predicted position.The elevation map comprises low-resolution data from a number of sources, including the Clementine and JAXA/SELENE spacecraft, combined with high-resolution insets for the regions near the poles. The surface color is derived from photographs taken by Clementine. ||

The Interstellar Boundary EXplorer (IBEX) mission will observe the boundary between the heliosphere and the interstellar medium from a location near the Earth. The mission will measure the flux of hydrogen Energetic Neutral Atoms (ENAs) which can be directed towards the Sun by an interaction with the heliosheath. In this visualization, we see the orbit of the spacecraft orbit (green) in relation to the Earth, the orbit of the Moon (gray), and Sun. For more information, visit the IBEX Mission Project Page at Southwest Research Institute which is managing the mission. We also have additional video outlining the mission (link). ||

The first attempt to land humans on the moon - Apollo 11 - was a triumph that almost ended in disaster. At just 400 feet from the lunar surface, with only about a minute's worth of fuel remaining, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin saw that their ship's computer was taking them directly into a crater the size of a football field, strewn with SUV-sized boulders. They quickly took control from the computer, flew over the crater and touched down in a smoother area beyond, cutting the engine with just 30 seconds of fuel left. In general, good landing sites need to be level and free from large boulders that could damage or tip the spacecraft as it attempts to land. And it's up to LRO to make those landings as safe as possible. Astronauts will want to avoid places with steep slopes that could tip the spacecraft, so LRO includes a laser ranging system that will build an elevation map to show the contours of the polar surface. The instrument, called the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA), records the time it takes for a laser pulse to travel from the spacecraft to the lunar surface and back to calculate the height of the lunar terrain. After a year in orbit aboard LRO, LOLA will have created an elevation map of the polar regions that is accurate to within a half-meter (20 inches) vertically and 50 meters (about 160 feet) horizontally. LRO will also use data from another instrument that measures temperatures to double-check the safe zone map. Temperatures change more rapidly in areas with loose materials (lots of rocks). By analyzing how quickly temperatures change in potential landing zones, planners using the instrument, named Diviner, can rule out areas that appear smooth but actually are likely to be rocky. LRO also carries a pair of eagle-eyed cameras, called the Narrow Angle Cameras (NACs) which together can take images that reveal details as small as a half-meter (almost 20 inches) over swaths 10 kilometers (about 6.2 miles) wide. As LRO orbits over the poles, the moon rotates beneath the spacecraft, and the NACs will gradually build up a detailed picture of the region. It will be used to identify safe landing zones free of large boulders and craters, allowing astronauts to avoid surprises like Apollo 11. LRO is scheduled to launch in 2009.For a 3D stereo version of this visualization, please visit animation #3567: How LRO Will Find Safe Landing Sites on the Moon - Stereoscopic versionFor a feature version of this visualization with narration and music, please visit Goddard Multimedia #10349: LRO Scouts for Safe Landing Sites ||

Heliophysics is a term to describe the study of the Sun, its atmosphere or the heliosphere, and the planets within it as a system. As a result, it encompasses the study of planetary atmospheres and their magnetic environment, or magnetospheres. These environments are important in the study of space weather.As a society dependent on technology, both in everyday life, and as part of our economic growth, space weather becomes increasingly important. Changes in space weather, either by solar events or geomagnetic events, can disrupt and even damage power grids and satellite communications. Space weather events can also generate x-rays and gamma-rays, as well as particle radiations, that can jeopardize the lives of astronauts living and working in space.This visualization tours the regions of near-Earth orbit; the Earth's magnetosphere, sometimes called geospace; the region between the Earth and the Sun; and finally out beyond Pluto, where Voyager 1 and 2 are exploring the boundary between the Sun and the rest of our Milky Way galaxy. Along the way, we see these regions patrolled by a fleet of satellites that make up NASA's Heliophysics Observatory Telescopes. Many of these spacecraft do not take images in the conventional sense but record fields, particle energies and fluxes in situ. Many of these missions are operated in conjunction with international partners, such as the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japanese Space Agency (JAXA).The Earth and distances are to scale. Larger objects are used to represent the satellites and other planets for clarity.Here are the spacecraft featured in this movie:Near-Earth Fleet:Hinode: Observes the Sun in multiple wavelengths up to x-rays. SVS pageRHESSI : Observes the Sun in x-rays and gamma-rays. SVS pageTRACE: Observes the Sun in visible and ultraviolet wavelengths. SVS pageTIMED: Studies the upper layers (40-110 miles up) of the Earth's atmosphere.FAST: Measures particles and fields in regions where aurora form.CINDI: Measures interactions of neutral and charged particles in the ionosphere. AIM: Images and measures noctilucent clouds. SVS pageGeospace Fleet:Geotail: Conducts measurements of electrons and ions in the Earth's magnetotail. Cluster: This is a group of four satellites which fly in formation to measure how particles and fields in the magnetosphere vary in space and time. SVS pageTHEMIS: This is a fleet of five satellites to study how magnetospheric instabilities produce substorms. SVS pageL1 Fleet: The L1 point is a Lagrange Point between the Sun and the Earth. Spacecraft can orbit this location for continuous coverage of the Sun.SOHO: Studies the Sun with cameras and a multitude of other instruments. SVS pageACE: Measures the composition and characteristics of the solar wind. Wind: Measures particle flows and fields in the solar wind. Heliospheric FleetSTEREO-A and B: These two satellites observe the Sun, with imagers and particle detectors, off the Earth-Sun line, providing a 3-D view of solar activity. SVS pageHeliopause FleetVoyager 1 and 2: These spacecraft conducted the original 'Planetary Grand Tour' of the solar system in the 1970s and 1980s. They have now travelled further than any human-built spacecraft and are still returning measurements of the interplanetary medium. SVS pageA refined and narrated version of this visualization, Sentinels of the Heliosphere, is now available. ||

As the Earth and Moon orbit around the Sun, there are places on the Moon that never receive direct sunlight. Most of these permanently shadowed regions are at the lunar poles. This animation approximates the permanently shadowned regions pertaining to the Moon's south pole by maintaining a maximum sun angle to the surface of 1.5 degrees. These permanently shadowed areas are of interest because they could hold water ice. (NOTE: South Pole Digital Elevation Maps [DEM] based on publically released JAXA/Selene data.) ||

Heliophysics is a term to describe the study of the Sun, its atmosphere or the heliosphere, and the planets within it as a system. As a result, it encompasses the study of planetary atmospheres and their magnetic environment, or magnetospheres. These environments are important in the study of space weather.As a society dependent on technology, both in everyday life, and as part of our economic growth, space weather becomes increasingly important. Changes in space weather, either by solar events or geomagnetic events, can disrupt and even damage power grids and satellite communications. Space weather events can also generate x-rays and gamma-rays, as well as particle radiations, that can jeopardize the lives of astronauts living and working in space.This visualization tours the regions of near-Earth orbit; the Earth's magnetosphere, sometimes called geospace; the region between the Earth and the Sun; and finally out beyond Pluto, where Voyager 1 and 2 are exploring the boundary between the Sun and the rest of our Milky Way galaxy. Along the way, we see these regions patrolled by a fleet of satellites that make up NASA's Heliophysics Observatory Telescopes. Many of these spacecraft do not take images in the conventional sense but record fields, particle energies and fluxes in situ. Many of these missions are operated in conjunction with international partners, such as the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japanese Space Agency (JAXA).The Earth and distances are to scale. Larger objects are used to represent the satellites and other planets for clarity.Here are the spacecraft featured in this movie:Near-Earth Fleet:Hinode: Observes the Sun in multiple wavelengths up to x-rays. SVS pageRHESSI : Observes the Sun in x-rays and gamma-rays. SVS pageTRACE: Observes the Sun in visible and ultraviolet wavelengths. SVS pageTIMED: Studies the upper layers (40-110 miles up) of the Earth's atmosphere.FAST: Measures particles and fields in regions where aurora form.CINDI: Measures interactions of neutral and charged particles in the ionosphere. AIM: Images and measures noctilucent clouds. SVS pageGeospace Fleet:Geotail: Conducts measurements of electrons and ions in the Earth's magnetotail. Cluster: This is a group of four satellites which fly in formation to measure how particles and fields in the magnetosphere vary in space and time. SVS pageTHEMIS: This is a fleet of five satellites to study how magnetospheric instabilities produce substorms. SVS pageL1 Fleet: The L1 point is a Lagrange Point, a point between the Earth and the Sun where the gravitational pull is approximately equal. Spacecraft can orbit this location for continuous coverage of the Sun.SOHO: Studies the Sun with cameras and a multitude of other instruments. SVS pageACE: Measures the composition and characteristics of the solar wind. Wind: Measures particle flows and fields in the solar wind. Heliospheric FleetSTEREO-A and B: These two satellites observe the Sun, with imagers and particle detectors, off the Earth-Sun line, providing a 3-D view of solar activity. SVS pageHeliopause FleetVoyager 1 and 2: These spacecraft conducted the original 'Planetary Grand Tour' of the solar system in the 1970s and 1980s. They have now travelled further than any human-built spacecraft and are still returning measurements of the interplanetary medium. SVS pageThis enhanced, narrated visualization was shown at the SIGGRAPH 2009 Computer Animation Festival in New Orleans, LA in August 2009; an eariler version created for AGU was called NASA's Heliophysics Observatories Study the Sun and Geospace. ||