WEBVTT FILE 00:00:01.067.00:00:07.868 [ No sound ] 00:00:07.868.00:00:14.734 [ No sound ] 00:00:14.734.00:00:21.567 [ No sound ] 00:00:21.567.00:00:24.267 -Good afternoon, welcome to NASA headquarters. 00:00:24.267.00:00:25.667 My name is Paula Cleggett-Haleim, 00:00:25.667.00:00:27.934 and I'm a NASA public affairs officer. 00:00:27.934.00:00:31.067 Today we bring you a space astronomy update with news 00:00:31.067.00:00:32.834 from the Hubble Space Telescope 00:00:32.834.00:00:36.067 and a review of the telescope's 2 years in orbit 00:00:36.067.00:00:38.033 by our panel of noted astronomers. 00:00:38.033.00:00:39.934 Afterwards, we'll take questions. 00:00:39.934.00:00:42.334 Now, our moderator, Dr. Steve Maran, 00:00:42.334.00:00:44.300 will introduce the panelists. 00:00:44.300.00:00:45.367 Dr. Steve? 00:00:45.367.00:00:46.968 -Thank you, Paula. 00:00:46.968.00:00:50.734 We have a panel of distinguished astronomers here today, 00:00:50.734.00:00:55.767 but before I introduce them, let me tell you what the theme is. 00:00:55.767.00:00:58.567 We're going to talk about what... 00:00:58.567.00:01:01.968 some of the things that Hubble has accomplished 00:01:01.968.00:01:04.534 in its 2 years in orbit, 00:01:04.534.00:01:08.234 an anniversary that we are marking this week. 00:01:08.234.00:01:10.634 There were some early disappointments 00:01:10.634.00:01:12.033 with Hubble Telescope. 00:01:12.033.00:01:16.234 Everybody knows about them, but those days of blue gloom 00:01:16.234.00:01:18.033 turned into some weeks and months 00:01:18.033.00:01:21.367 and now 2 years of what I might call true grit, 00:01:21.367.00:01:24.901 as teams of astronomers, spacecraft operators, 00:01:24.901.00:01:29.267 engineers, mathematicians have all pulled together 00:01:29.267.00:01:33.701 and figured out how to restore, or, as we call it, 00:01:33.701.00:01:37.434 deconvolve the pictures from the Hubble Space Telescope 00:01:37.434.00:01:39.601 to get the maximum out of them, 00:01:39.601.00:01:43.968 and to correct the other data from other onboard instruments, 00:01:43.968.00:01:48.133 and as a result, we've had a lot of terrific findings. 00:01:48.133.00:01:52.567 We'll have a retrospective of some of the favorite findings 00:01:52.567.00:01:55.334 of our panelists during this show, 00:01:55.334.00:01:59.701 and we're getting new stuff from the Hubble Telescope 00:01:59.701.00:02:02.334 every day, day in and day out, 00:02:02.334.00:02:05.434 and we'll have a few examples of new findings 00:02:05.434.00:02:08.200 that we'll show you for the first time today. 00:02:08.200.00:02:11.634 Now, we have as guests today on the third edition 00:02:11.634.00:02:14.501 of "Space Astronomy Update," 00:02:14.501.00:02:18.467 starting on your left, Dr. John Bahcall 00:02:18.467.00:02:20.601 from the Institute for Advanced Study 00:02:20.601.00:02:22.100 in Princeton, New Jersey. 00:02:22.100.00:02:24.267 John Bahcall is one of the people 00:02:24.267.00:02:26.501 who made the Hubble Telescope happen. 00:02:26.501.00:02:29.434 With testimony to the United States Congress 00:02:29.434.00:02:32.634 and his leadership role at the National Academy of Sciences 00:02:32.634.00:02:34.434 and more recently as the president 00:02:34.434.00:02:36.567 of the American Astronomical Society, 00:02:36.567.00:02:39.100 he's an interdisciplinary scientist 00:02:39.100.00:02:40.834 working with the Hubble Telescope. 00:02:40.834.00:02:43.200 Welcome, John. -Thank you. 00:02:43.200.00:02:46.367 -Next to John and next to me, Dr. Sally Heap. 00:02:46.367.00:02:48.467 She's from the Goddard Space Flight Center 00:02:48.467.00:02:51.167 in Greenbelt, Maryland, where I work. 00:02:51.167.00:02:55.501 Sally Heap played one of the principal roles in building 00:02:55.501.00:02:59.701 and operating the Goddard High-Resolution Spectrograph, 00:02:59.701.00:03:01.234 an onboard Hubble instrument 00:03:01.234.00:03:04.567 that is the most powerful ultraviolet spectrograph 00:03:04.567.00:03:07.968 ever operated in space. 00:03:07.968.00:03:11.467 Just to my left is Dr. Dan Weedman. 00:03:11.467.00:03:14.834 Dan is an infrared astronomer who is professor of astronomy, 00:03:14.834.00:03:19.434 Pennsylvania State University in University Park, PA, 00:03:19.434.00:03:20.734 and Dan Weedman 00:03:20.734.00:03:23.834 is an investigator of galaxies and quasars, 00:03:23.834.00:03:26.634 and we're making him into a solar-system 00:03:26.634.00:03:28.367 pundit today as well. 00:03:28.367.00:03:33.200 And next to Dan, our other veteran "Space Astronomy Update" 00:03:33.200.00:03:35.434 panelist, Dr. Bruce Margon, 00:03:35.434.00:03:37.634 Chairman of the Department of Astronomy 00:03:37.634.00:03:40.100 at the University of Washington in Seattle, 00:03:40.100.00:03:41.634 one of the people who helped build 00:03:41.634.00:03:45.367 and is observing with the Faint Object Spectrograph, 00:03:45.367.00:03:47.434 another one of the five instruments 00:03:47.434.00:03:49.734 onboard the Hubble Telescope. 00:03:49.734.00:03:54.234 Welcome to the panel, and now let us talk about a recent 00:03:54.234.00:03:56.467 finding from the Hubble Telescope. 00:03:56.467.00:03:58.267 In the weekend of February 8th, 00:03:58.267.00:04:01.067 as the interplanetary spacecraft Ulysses 00:04:01.067.00:04:03.267 went by the planet Jupiter 00:04:03.267.00:04:06.767 making measurements of X-rays 00:04:06.767.00:04:09.601 and particles and magnetic fields 00:04:09.601.00:04:13.000 but without the capability to take photographs, 00:04:13.000.00:04:14.567 the Hubble Space Telescope 00:04:14.567.00:04:16.968 made the first ultraviolet photographs 00:04:16.968.00:04:18.467 of the auroral oval 00:04:18.467.00:04:21.000 near the north pole of Jupiter. 00:04:21.000.00:04:24.234 The research was done by Dr. John Caldwell 00:04:24.234.00:04:27.200 of York University in Ontario, Canada, 00:04:27.200.00:04:29.501 and our producer, Trish Pengra, 00:04:29.501.00:04:31.534 took the crew up there last week, 00:04:31.534.00:04:35.434 and here is an interview with John Caldwell 00:04:35.434.00:04:38.000 telling us what he found on Jupiter. 00:04:41.067.00:04:42.400 -Good afternoon. 00:04:42.400.00:04:45.200 Today I want to present the first ultraviolet image 00:04:45.200.00:04:46.801 of the aurora on Jupiter 00:04:46.801.00:04:49.567 taken by the Hubble Space Telescope. 00:04:49.567.00:04:51.434 The Jovian aurora is similar in many ways 00:04:51.434.00:04:54.167 to the Northern Lights, which are familiar here on Earth. 00:04:54.167.00:04:58.133 In both cases, it's what happens when very high-energy particles, 00:04:58.133.00:04:59.167 which are trapped in 00:04:59.167.00:05:00.968 the magnetospheres of the planets, 00:05:00.968.00:05:02.834 impact on the upper atmospheres. 00:05:02.834.00:05:05.667 Literally, they cause the atmospheres to glow. 00:05:05.667.00:05:08.133 The Hubble image was taken simultaneously 00:05:08.133.00:05:11.734 with the flyby of Jupiter by the Ulysses spacecraft. 00:05:11.734.00:05:15.000 The data sets between the two spacecraft are complementary. 00:05:15.000.00:05:18.200 The Ulysses payload included many particle 00:05:18.200.00:05:19.767 and fields experiments, 00:05:19.767.00:05:22.000 and the Hubble was able, from a distance, 00:05:22.000.00:05:23.400 to get the big picture. 00:05:23.400.00:05:25.167 Ulysses doesn't have a camera on board, 00:05:25.167.00:05:26.300 and of course, Hubble does, 00:05:26.300.00:05:28.767 and the Hubble cameras work very well. 00:05:28.767.00:05:31.300 In this case, simultaneity is very important 00:05:31.300.00:05:34.234 because the aurora is always changing, 00:05:34.234.00:05:35.701 and it is just not good enough 00:05:35.701.00:05:38.767 to make observations of one kind at a particular time 00:05:38.767.00:05:41.434 and then make another kind of observations later 00:05:41.434.00:05:43.000 and try to compare the two. 00:05:43.000.00:05:44.567 The aurora has a lot to tell us 00:05:44.567.00:05:46.501 about the polar environment on Jupiter, 00:05:46.501.00:05:48.367 including the temperatures there, 00:05:48.367.00:05:50.334 the winds and the chemistry. 00:05:50.334.00:05:52.133 Now that we have the data, we're very excited 00:05:52.133.00:05:54.667 by the prospect of combining the information 00:05:54.667.00:05:55.968 from the two data sets 00:05:55.968.00:05:58.367 to learn a lot more from that combination 00:05:58.367.00:06:01.934 than we ever could from just one set alone. 00:06:01.934.00:06:04.634 -That was the auroral oval on Jupiter. 00:06:04.634.00:06:06.100 We have an auroral oval 00:06:06.100.00:06:08.801 over the north magnetic pole of the Earth. 00:06:08.801.00:06:10.267 If you go to Norway, for example, 00:06:10.267.00:06:11.667 which is under the oval, 00:06:11.667.00:06:15.501 you see an aurora every night, 00:06:15.501.00:06:17.534 but the auroral oval on the Earth, I think, 00:06:17.534.00:06:19.968 is probably very different from the one on Jupiter. 00:06:19.968.00:06:21.701 Dan Weedman, what can you tell us? 00:06:21.701.00:06:22.934 -Well, the first thing I'm going to do 00:06:22.934.00:06:24.267 is start with a bit of an apology, 00:06:24.267.00:06:25.801 that I'm apologetic for the fact 00:06:25.801.00:06:28.334 that we have so many exciting things to talk about today 00:06:28.334.00:06:31.234 that we really can't do justice to this recent observation 00:06:31.234.00:06:33.267 or other observations that Hubble has made of objects 00:06:33.267.00:06:34.701 in our solar system, 00:06:34.701.00:06:37.834 but this aurora is a quite unusual thing, 00:06:37.834.00:06:39.334 in contrast to the one you mentioned 00:06:39.334.00:06:40.968 that's associated with our planet. 00:06:40.968.00:06:42.133 For one thing, it's much, much larger. 00:06:42.133.00:06:43.801 The planet Earth would just about fit inside 00:06:43.801.00:06:46.634 that circle of aurora we just saw on Jupiter, 00:06:46.634.00:06:48.634 but I think more interesting than that from a scientific 00:06:48.634.00:06:50.801 point of view, this aurora on Jupiter 00:06:50.801.00:06:53.501 is caused by a totally different phenomenon. 00:06:53.501.00:06:56.067 In the case of the Earth, the Northern Lights come about 00:06:56.067.00:06:59.267 when particles from the Sun are channeled into the North 00:06:59.267.00:07:01.968 and South Pole of the Earth by the Earth's magnetic field. 00:07:01.968.00:07:04.934 In the case of Jupiter, those aren't particles from the Sun 00:07:04.934.00:07:07.200 that are stirring up the glow that you saw in that aurora, 00:07:07.200.00:07:09.234 but in fact, they're particles from Jupiter's 00:07:09.234.00:07:10.968 closest large moon. 00:07:10.968.00:07:14.367 The moon Io is being tugged upon and distorted and heated 00:07:14.367.00:07:15.801 by the gravitational pull of Jupiter, 00:07:15.801.00:07:19.601 and as a consequence, these very active volcanoes on Io, 00:07:19.601.00:07:22.200 which are spouting off all the time, erupting, 00:07:22.200.00:07:24.000 loosening particles in the vicinity, 00:07:24.000.00:07:27.234 and those particles get trapped by Jupiter's magnetic field, 00:07:27.234.00:07:29.868 and it's those particles that we see channeled down 00:07:29.868.00:07:31.801 and crashing into the pole of Jupiter, 00:07:31.801.00:07:34.200 so what we're really seeing in this aurora 00:07:34.200.00:07:36.601 is one of the few visible manifestations of this 00:07:36.601.00:07:39.234 delicate dance taking place between Jupiter and Io, 00:07:39.234.00:07:40.501 and it's all controlled 00:07:40.501.00:07:42.467 by the extraordinary magnetic field of Jupiter 00:07:42.467.00:07:45.868 in that vicinity, so interesting phenomenon. 00:07:45.868.00:07:48.567 I'd like to have more time to talk about today. 00:07:48.567.00:07:50.100 -Well, if that theory is right... 00:07:50.100.00:07:52.334 And I think that the observation John Caldwell 00:07:52.334.00:07:54.267 got will enable he 00:07:54.267.00:07:56.801 and his colleagues to determine in fact 00:07:56.801.00:08:01.367 whether this current theory of the origin 00:08:01.367.00:08:02.801 of the aurora on Jupiter is correct, 00:08:02.801.00:08:08.868 and it has been debated among the planetologists. 00:08:08.868.00:08:12.801 As I understand it, the pictures that Hubble got should be 00:08:12.801.00:08:16.400 capable of answering that question, 00:08:16.400.00:08:18.400 and if that theory is right, 00:08:18.400.00:08:22.667 this will be one of the very few forms of light 00:08:22.667.00:08:25.968 other than man-made or person-made light 00:08:25.968.00:08:27.434 in the solar system 00:08:27.434.00:08:30.667 that is not powered by the Sun. 00:08:30.667.00:08:33.701 This is light that ultimately... 00:08:33.701.00:08:35.000 -This one is... 00:08:35.000.00:08:36.067 -Derives its power from the gravity of Jupiter. 00:08:36.067.00:08:37.534 -This glow would be there no matter 00:08:37.534.00:08:39.067 where Jupiter and Io were. 00:08:39.067.00:08:42.300 They could be totally removed from a Sun, from a star, 00:08:42.300.00:08:45.300 and this glow would still be there shining. 00:08:45.300.00:08:49.067 -There have been a lot of Hubble studies of the planets. 00:08:49.067.00:08:51.234 Most of them have not come out yet, 00:08:51.234.00:08:53.067 or at most, in preliminary form. 00:08:53.067.00:08:55.968 They tend to be long-term studies. 00:08:55.968.00:08:57.868 With the Ulysses, with the Voyager, 00:08:57.868.00:08:59.234 you get some great data, 00:08:59.234.00:09:01.968 but you go by the planet in a few days. 00:09:01.968.00:09:03.601 Hubble keeps looking, 00:09:03.601.00:09:07.834 and we probably won't talk much more about it during this show, 00:09:07.834.00:09:09.300 but at the end of the show, 00:09:09.300.00:09:11.334 in fact, after the question period, 00:09:11.334.00:09:12.834 we will show a videotape 00:09:12.834.00:09:15.734 prepared at the Space Telescope Science Institute 00:09:15.734.00:09:19.100 that remind us of many striking images 00:09:19.100.00:09:21.234 that have come down from Hubble in the last 2 years, 00:09:21.234.00:09:24.801 and this includes quite a few of the planets. 00:09:24.801.00:09:31.033 Now, to go to another subject entirely, Bruce Margon, 00:09:31.033.00:09:34.667 one of your fascinations is with globular star clusters, 00:09:34.667.00:09:38.968 and Hubble has turned out to be just an incredible way 00:09:38.968.00:09:40.334 of studying those objects. 00:09:40.334.00:09:43.601 What are globular star clusters, and what are we learning? 00:09:43.601.00:09:46.467 -Globular star clusters, Steve, are objects 00:09:46.467.00:09:48.534 that are very well-known to the amateur astronomers. 00:09:48.534.00:09:50.567 There aren't any in the sky that are quite bright enough 00:09:50.567.00:09:51.901 to see with your naked eye, 00:09:51.901.00:09:54.300 but a small telescope will show them just splendidly. 00:09:54.300.00:09:55.567 If we could have our first still picture, 00:09:55.567.00:09:57.234 I'll show you what one of them 00:09:57.234.00:09:59.000 looks like from a ground-based photograph. 00:09:59.000.00:10:01.534 A globular cluster is an agglomeration 00:10:01.534.00:10:03.434 of 100,000 normal stars, 00:10:03.434.00:10:05.934 each one about as heavy as our own Sun, 00:10:05.934.00:10:07.667 that are trapped together by their own gravity, 00:10:07.667.00:10:10.133 tugging on each other, swirling around like a beehive, 00:10:10.133.00:10:11.267 unable to get away. 00:10:11.267.00:10:12.267 -And this is not a Hubble photograph. 00:10:12.267.00:10:13.300 -This is not a Hubble photograph. 00:10:13.300.00:10:14.667 This is a ground-based photograph, 00:10:14.667.00:10:16.033 and although it's beautiful, 00:10:16.033.00:10:18.567 it also instantly shows you the problem or one problem 00:10:18.567.00:10:20.968 with studying globular star clusters from the ground, 00:10:20.968.00:10:23.734 and that is the stars are so close together 00:10:23.734.00:10:25.400 that all ground-based images, 00:10:25.400.00:10:26.934 especially towards the center of the cluster, 00:10:26.934.00:10:30.200 are just hopelessly burned out and overexposed, 00:10:30.200.00:10:34.000 so there were always high hopes that Hubble would tell us 00:10:34.000.00:10:35.701 new things about globular clusters. 00:10:35.701.00:10:37.133 -I thought that means that there are two stars lying 00:10:37.133.00:10:38.734 on top of each other, so you can't... 00:10:38.734.00:10:40.834 -In fact, not two, but 2,000, right... 00:10:40.834.00:10:42.467 -Right. -In each little place. 00:10:42.467.00:10:45.868 Now, globular clusters are neat because they are an experiment 00:10:45.868.00:10:47.434 by nature in gravity. 00:10:47.434.00:10:49.334 That is, you have 100.000 little particles. 00:10:49.334.00:10:51.033 each one obeying Newton's law, 00:10:51.033.00:10:55.367 each one subject to the tug of 999,000 other ones, 00:10:55.367.00:10:57.601 and in fact, although Newton's laws are simple, 00:10:57.601.00:10:59.767 there are so many stars in a globular cluster 00:10:59.767.00:11:02.400 that even the fastest computers we have today 00:11:02.400.00:11:06.601 cannot track specifically how this... 00:11:06.601.00:11:09.167 -They don't just go around in circles or even ellipses. 00:11:09.167.00:11:11.634 -Well, like, a single star might if left to itself, 00:11:11.634.00:11:13.934 but of course, there are these constant involvements 00:11:13.934.00:11:15.300 with nearby companions, 00:11:15.300.00:11:17.467 and so the clusters have always fascinated astronomers 00:11:17.467.00:11:18.634 because we realize, 00:11:18.634.00:11:20.300 on a time scale of 10 to 20 billion years. 00:11:20.300.00:11:22.634 the age of the universe, that they're going to evolve. 00:11:22.634.00:11:25.534 They're going to change because of all these interacting forces, 00:11:25.534.00:11:27.067 but they are so complex, 00:11:27.067.00:11:28.367 just because there are so many stars, 00:11:28.367.00:11:30.334 that you can't calculate what this evolution 00:11:30.334.00:11:32.300 is going to be very easily. 00:11:32.300.00:11:36.400 There have been suspicions that the evolution might end in some 00:11:36.400.00:11:38.300 or possibly even all clusters, 00:11:38.300.00:11:41.334 with a collapse into the center into a massive black hole. 00:11:41.334.00:11:44.067 -There you go again. 00:11:44.067.00:11:46.033 -Black holes rear their ugly head again. 00:11:46.033.00:11:48.400 It's true, but they were only suspicions, 00:11:48.400.00:11:50.300 okay, really unverified. 00:11:50.300.00:11:52.033 The problem really being, it's very difficult 00:11:52.033.00:11:54.234 to observe deep into the center. 00:11:54.234.00:11:55.567 Let's take a look at the next still, 00:11:55.567.00:12:00.133 and I believe that we'll see one of the first images 00:12:00.133.00:12:01.334 of a globular star cluster. 00:12:01.334.00:12:02.934 This is just a teeny little piece of it. 00:12:02.934.00:12:05.367 -That's very confusing. -Well, what we see on the left 00:12:05.367.00:12:07.667 is a little piece of a globular star cluster 00:12:07.667.00:12:10.300 taken from the ground with a large telescope, 00:12:10.300.00:12:13.067 with a conventional instrument, and on the right, 00:12:13.067.00:12:17.267 we see that identical little piece of the same star cluster 00:12:17.267.00:12:18.901 imaged from the Hubble Space Telescope, 00:12:18.901.00:12:20.467 and as you say, you look at those two panels, 00:12:20.467.00:12:22.267 I mean, they don't even look the same, 00:12:22.267.00:12:23.467 but if you look carefully, 00:12:23.467.00:12:24.634 you'll notice over there on the far right... 00:12:24.634.00:12:25.868 -You can see that tail on this far side... 00:12:25.868.00:12:27.367 -There is this blurred-out arc. That's right. 00:12:27.367.00:12:28.801 -Which is the same in both of them. 00:12:28.801.00:12:32.300 -Each little blob on the ground- based photograph on the left, 00:12:32.300.00:12:34.467 the HST then breaks up 00:12:34.467.00:12:37.901 into dozens of individual little stars, 00:12:37.901.00:12:40.467 and so for the first time, instead of just seeing 00:12:40.467.00:12:43.300 these horrendously overexposed blobs from the ground, 00:12:43.300.00:12:45.901 we're actually looking into the heart of the cluster 00:12:45.901.00:12:47.467 and seeing the individual stars 00:12:47.467.00:12:50.000 and seeing what's actually going on in the center. 00:12:50.000.00:12:52.234 -Have you learned things though, just from the imagery? 00:12:52.234.00:12:54.534 Do you need more than simply these pictures? 00:12:54.534.00:12:55.534 -He's glad you asked. 00:12:55.534.00:12:58.200 -I'm glad you asked that. 00:12:58.200.00:13:00.300 These studies are still at a preliminary stage, 00:13:00.300.00:13:02.234 but even just the images are immediately 00:13:02.234.00:13:03.601 telling us certain interesting things. 00:13:03.601.00:13:07.734 I believe the next still image is one of these results 00:13:07.734.00:13:11.000 in a globular cluster called M15 because it's from someone... 00:13:11.000.00:13:15.334 Messier's list of funny nebulous objects, entry number 15, 00:13:15.334.00:13:17.901 and this was a cluster which, from the ground, 00:13:17.901.00:13:20.133 was thought was going to be a prime candidate 00:13:20.133.00:13:21.501 for a black hole in the center. 00:13:21.501.00:13:23.334 -This is the center as seen by Hubble Space Telescope. 00:13:23.334.00:13:24.534 -This is very center of the cluster 00:13:24.534.00:13:26.167 as imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope. 00:13:26.167.00:13:27.434 -Told you they weren't. 00:13:27.434.00:13:29.701 -Well, a picture is worth a thousand words here, 00:13:29.701.00:13:32.767 and what you see is a bunch of stars, a bunch of dots, 00:13:32.767.00:13:35.000 no central light cusp 00:13:35.000.00:13:37.934 that's caused by the attraction of a giant black hole 00:13:37.934.00:13:40.000 that's causing the stars to swirl around it, 00:13:40.000.00:13:43.100 and so in this one picture, that subset of astronomers 00:13:43.100.00:13:44.567 who thought there was a massive black 00:13:44.567.00:13:46.901 in M15 have largely backed off. 00:13:46.901.00:13:49.968 There is no evidence for one giant, central attractor there. 00:13:49.968.00:13:51.834 -But so it raises new questions. 00:13:51.834.00:13:53.701 It's kind of like the Sherlock Holmes story 00:13:53.701.00:13:55.367 where the dog didn't bark. 00:13:55.367.00:13:57.367 There's got to be an explanation, 00:13:57.367.00:13:59.868 and we hope someone is going to come up 00:13:59.868.00:14:01.734 with one one of these days. 00:14:01.734.00:14:06.601 -Well, there is some observational evidence 00:14:06.601.00:14:07.734 to what these interactions do. 00:14:07.734.00:14:10.033 The next still, I think, will show us that 00:14:10.033.00:14:11.334 in the center of a different cluster 00:14:11.334.00:14:13.601 as imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope, 00:14:13.601.00:14:15.534 we are beginning now to find evidence 00:14:15.534.00:14:17.701 for a very peculiar population of stars. 00:14:17.701.00:14:20.234 This is a star cluster called 47 Tucanae. 00:14:20.234.00:14:22.300 It's only visible in the Southern Hemisphere, 00:14:22.300.00:14:24.534 and the bright blue stars that you see... 00:14:24.534.00:14:27.100 We're just looking at the very, very center of the cluster here, 00:14:27.100.00:14:29.200 just a teeny little piece, 00:14:29.200.00:14:32.367 and these brightest blue objects 00:14:32.367.00:14:35.000 turn out to be very peculiar stars 00:14:35.000.00:14:38.801 that are hot and young even though globular star clusters 00:14:38.801.00:14:41.067 are thought to be the oldest objects in the universe. 00:14:41.067.00:14:42.667 They're thought to have only very old stars. 00:14:42.667.00:14:46.267 Yet, now, when we can finally peer into the center using HST 00:14:46.267.00:14:48.033 and look at each individual object, 00:14:48.033.00:14:50.634 we instead see these young stars, 00:14:50.634.00:14:53.501 and we're beginning to realize that maybe we don't get romantic 00:14:53.501.00:14:55.434 black holes from collisions of of stars 00:14:55.434.00:14:57.033 in the centers of globular clusters, 00:14:57.033.00:14:59.367 but rather, we get these stellar rebirths, 00:14:59.367.00:15:01.133 these merging of stars, 00:15:01.133.00:15:03.601 which cause a new population of hot stars to be born, 00:15:03.601.00:15:05.467 so there's a lot more work to be done, 00:15:05.467.00:15:06.701 but the initial evidence is that 00:15:06.701.00:15:08.300 HST is going to tell us an awful lot about 00:15:08.300.00:15:09.834 what's going on in the very center of globular clusters. 00:15:09.834.00:15:11.467 -And found these were mostly in the center of the cluster. 00:15:11.467.00:15:13.334 -That's right, in the very... -Why is that? 00:15:13.334.00:15:15.300 -Well, they're the most massive stars, and so they tend 00:15:15.300.00:15:16.834 to kind of sink to the middle, 00:15:16.834.00:15:19.467 like if you put some marbles in Jell-O and waited a while, 00:15:19.467.00:15:23.234 they'd very gradually sink to the center of the Jell-O. 00:15:23.234.00:15:24.400 -Okay. 00:15:24.400.00:15:26.734 Well, Sally Heap, Bruce Margon has been talking 00:15:26.734.00:15:29.834 about the globular clusters he's been studying. 00:15:29.834.00:15:35.434 These are huge aggregations of what are mostly very old 00:15:35.434.00:15:38.434 and relatively medium and lightweight stars, 00:15:38.434.00:15:39.968 and the pictures we've seen, 00:15:39.968.00:15:42.834 those are all globular clusters in our own galaxy, 00:15:42.834.00:15:44.267 the Milky Way. 00:15:44.267.00:15:46.634 You have been studying a totally different kind of star cluster 00:15:46.634.00:15:48.200 that's composed of... 00:15:48.200.00:15:49.400 I don't want to give it all away, 00:15:49.400.00:15:51.067 but it is in another galaxy, 00:15:51.067.00:15:54.200 169.000 light-years from Earth. 00:15:54.200.00:15:56.501 Tell us about your favorite star cluster. 00:15:56.501.00:15:58.801 -Well, Steve, the Hubble has looked at some real 00:15:58.801.00:16:02.234 stellar nurseries, too, as well as these old clusters, 00:16:02.234.00:16:05.267 and one of the most interesting ones that it's looked at 00:16:05.267.00:16:08.367 is an object called R136a. 00:16:08.367.00:16:10.000 That's in another galaxy, as you say. 00:16:10.000.00:16:12.534 It's in the Large Magellanic Cloud, 00:16:12.534.00:16:14.968 and as recently as 10 years ago, 00:16:14.968.00:16:17.334 people thought that this might be a supermassive star. 00:16:17.334.00:16:22.868 It might be 2,000 times heavier than the Sun. 00:16:22.868.00:16:24.801 Well, on August of 1990, 00:16:24.801.00:16:27.767 the Hubble took a picture of R136a 00:16:27.767.00:16:30.400 and immediately put that theory to rest. 00:16:30.400.00:16:34.100 It was obvious right from that first picture 00:16:34.100.00:16:35.968 that this was a cluster of stars, 00:16:35.968.00:16:37.901 not just a single star. 00:16:37.901.00:16:40.300 Well, since that time, the Hubble has gone back 00:16:40.300.00:16:42.701 and taken more deeper exposures, 00:16:42.701.00:16:44.067 and we've been able to measure 00:16:44.067.00:16:46.300 the brightnesses of stars in the cluster, 00:16:46.300.00:16:49.100 and I think the still picture 00:16:49.100.00:16:52.801 has a picture of R136a as taken from the Hubble. 00:16:57.667.00:17:01.701 On your left, you see a picture of R136a, 00:17:01.701.00:17:06.434 a region only 1 6/10 light-years across, 00:17:06.434.00:17:12.601 and the left part shows you the R136a cluster 00:17:12.601.00:17:14.067 as the Hubble saw it. 00:17:14.067.00:17:17.334 On the right-hand side, you see it after a technique 00:17:17.334.00:17:20.801 that we've called photometric reconstruction. 00:17:20.801.00:17:24.834 That shows R136a as Hubble will see it 00:17:24.834.00:17:26.701 after the first repair mission. 00:17:26.701.00:17:28.968 -This is the latest word in these various techniques 00:17:28.968.00:17:31.300 that mathematicians and astronomers have been 00:17:31.300.00:17:32.501 developing to sharpen to the pictures. 00:17:32.501.00:17:34.934 -It's one of the techniques, mm-hmm, 00:17:34.934.00:17:36.400 and it shows quite clearly 00:17:36.400.00:17:40.033 that there are nearly 50 stars right there in R136a, 00:17:40.033.00:17:42.501 and we can measure the brightnesses of those stars, 00:17:42.501.00:17:45.834 and that's fine, but you still need to have more. 00:17:45.834.00:17:47.167 You want to know how hot they are. 00:17:47.167.00:17:50.133 You want to know how heavy those stars are, 00:17:50.133.00:17:51.901 and for that, you need spectra, 00:17:51.901.00:17:55.434 and so the Hubble went back still another time to R136a, 00:17:55.434.00:17:57.534 this time taking a spectrum of it, 00:17:57.534.00:17:59.534 and I think the next still picture 00:17:59.534.00:18:01.667 shows a portion of the spectrum 00:18:01.667.00:18:03.534 that the Goddard High-Resolution Spectrograph showed. 00:18:03.534.00:18:04.534 -What do you study on here 00:18:04.534.00:18:06.734 to find out how big these stars are? 00:18:06.734.00:18:09.968 -Well, what we study are the features that were formed 00:18:09.968.00:18:11.767 in the outflow from these stars, 00:18:11.767.00:18:13.434 or the winds from those stars, 00:18:13.434.00:18:16.300 and that big feature on the right-hand side... 00:18:16.300.00:18:17.901 -The big dip around 1550. 00:18:17.901.00:18:20.267 -With the big dip and big emission there, 00:18:20.267.00:18:22.601 that was formed by triply ionized carbon 00:18:22.601.00:18:25.000 from the outflows from these stars. 00:18:25.000.00:18:28.901 -Hey, Sally, this very brief description you've been able 00:18:28.901.00:18:31.934 to give us illustrates one of the frustrations 00:18:31.934.00:18:34.467 of trying to explain things they way we do 00:18:34.467.00:18:35.901 because we like to show pretty pictures. 00:18:35.901.00:18:37.400 Pretty pictures are very impressive, 00:18:37.400.00:18:38.501 especially in this case. 00:18:38.501.00:18:40.534 They're more dramatically impressive. 00:18:40.534.00:18:42.968 The one you showed illustrating 50 stars 00:18:42.968.00:18:44.100 where before from the ground 00:18:44.100.00:18:45.868 we thought there was only one, and yet, 00:18:45.868.00:18:48.300 when the time comes to really do the scientific analysis... 00:18:48.300.00:18:50.667 -Do real physics. -You've got to do the spectrum. 00:18:50.667.00:18:52.100 -You've got to have the spectrum. 00:18:52.100.00:18:53.300 That is so informative, 00:18:53.300.00:18:55.100 and right away from that spectrum 00:18:55.100.00:18:56.868 combined with the pictures, 00:18:56.868.00:18:58.334 then you get the full picture, 00:18:58.334.00:19:01.367 and what we find is that 00:19:01.367.00:19:03.567 these stars are very heavy. 00:19:03.567.00:19:06.868 Some of them are 100 times heavier than the Sun, 00:19:06.868.00:19:08.534 and what is even more striking 00:19:08.534.00:19:10.968 is that the heavyweights outnumber the lightweights. 00:19:10.968.00:19:13.734 That's completely different from any type of cluster 00:19:13.734.00:19:15.434 that we know in our own galaxy, so... 00:19:15.434.00:19:16.601 -It's really worth emphasizing. 00:19:16.601.00:19:19.067 As I just saw last night for the first time 00:19:19.067.00:19:20.968 your paper on this result, 00:19:20.968.00:19:22.567 and it's an example of the kind of thing 00:19:22.567.00:19:25.133 that is truly a new discovery, 00:19:25.133.00:19:27.234 a new scientific discovery with Hubble, 00:19:27.234.00:19:28.501 in the sense that you've found... 00:19:28.501.00:19:30.033 In this particular group of stars, 00:19:30.033.00:19:33.234 you've found a situation where it appears to be just as easy, 00:19:33.234.00:19:36.501 maybe even easier, to make large stars than to make small stars, 00:19:36.501.00:19:38.968 and that's totally counter to all the assumptions 00:19:38.968.00:19:41.267 we've ever had in astronomy about the way stars are made. 00:19:41.267.00:19:43.701 It's always assumed that we've made a lot of little ones 00:19:43.701.00:19:44.801 and just a few big ones, 00:19:44.801.00:19:46.167 but you're showing us a group of stars 00:19:46.167.00:19:48.734 where it's mostly very large, very massive stars. 00:19:48.734.00:19:50.868 -Well, before, as you say, we had to make assumptions. 00:19:50.868.00:19:52.300 Now Hubble gets a picture. 00:19:52.300.00:19:54.968 Now Hubble gets a spectrum, tells you what it's like. 00:19:54.968.00:19:56.767 Now you can't make that assumption anymore. 00:19:56.767.00:20:01.234 -Okay. I think that to give credit where credit is due 00:20:01.234.00:20:04.801 because this is an important finding, 00:20:04.801.00:20:07.267 we knew before Hubble there was probably more than one star, 00:20:07.267.00:20:09.601 and the story kind of goes like this. 00:20:09.601.00:20:11.868 Quite a few years back, observers in, I believe, 00:20:11.868.00:20:14.133 South Africa found this star, 00:20:14.133.00:20:16.834 and at that time it just listed it as one star. 00:20:16.834.00:20:22.601 In the late '70s, a smaller NASA satellite observatory 00:20:22.601.00:20:25.868 got evidence that led most of the people who looked at it 00:20:25.868.00:20:29.667 that time to suggest it was a single star 00:20:29.667.00:20:34.000 with an incredible amount of mass 00:20:34.000.00:20:36.968 that violated the rules on how massive a star could be. 00:20:36.968.00:20:39.267 This looked like an amazing finding. 00:20:39.267.00:20:43.734 A star shouldn't get much more than 100 or 120 solar masses 00:20:43.734.00:20:47.868 because then they're producing so much light 00:20:47.868.00:20:49.234 that the pressure of the light 00:20:49.234.00:20:51.467 blows the outer layers of the star apart, 00:20:51.467.00:20:55.701 and I remember writing an article at the time saying, 00:20:55.701.00:21:01.033 "Not everyone agrees with this, but I think even if it turns out 00:21:01.033.00:21:03.467 that it is not a supermassive star," 00:21:03.467.00:21:05.434 which was the party line at the time, 00:21:05.434.00:21:08.701 "it would still be an amazing thing if in a size"... 00:21:08.701.00:21:11.634 It turns out you've showed us just 1.6 light-years 00:21:11.634.00:21:13.801 is well worth more than just the distance 00:21:13.801.00:21:16.868 one third the way from the Sun to the nearest star. 00:21:16.868.00:21:19.000 You've got 50 stars packed in there, 00:21:19.000.00:21:21.868 probably all much larger than the Sun, 00:21:21.868.00:21:23.901 so I think that's an extraordinary finding, 00:21:23.901.00:21:26.534 and we could go on about it, 00:21:26.534.00:21:29.400 but I'd rather hear about Sally's next finding. 00:21:29.400.00:21:32.767 This is one of the best pictures, I think, if I may say 00:21:32.767.00:21:36.133 so, artistically, to come out of Hubble. 00:21:36.133.00:21:39.434 I think somewhere it's going to go on a lot of walls, 00:21:39.434.00:21:42.934 and it's a real hot star. 00:21:42.934.00:21:44.367 Tell us about that. -That's right. 00:21:44.367.00:21:47.567 It's an absolutely hot star, and it's also very old. 00:21:47.567.00:21:48.567 In fact... 00:21:48.567.00:21:50.701 -Is it, in fact, the hottest star, Sally? 00:21:50.701.00:21:52.167 -Wait. There's a story behind it. 00:21:52.167.00:21:54.934 Yes. 00:21:54.934.00:21:57.267 This was an example of a type of star 00:21:57.267.00:22:01.133 called a central star of a planetary nebulae. 00:22:01.133.00:22:03.701 These are stars that are very much like the Sun, 00:22:03.701.00:22:05.734 but they're very much older, much more evolved. 00:22:05.734.00:22:08.300 Legally speaking, they're practically dead, 00:22:08.300.00:22:11.100 but in these last phases of their lives, 00:22:11.100.00:22:13.300 they go through a blaze of glory. 00:22:13.300.00:22:15.567 This is, you know, in Andy Warhol's terms, 00:22:15.567.00:22:18.167 their 15 minutes of fame. 00:22:18.167.00:22:22.367 They really are spectacular. 00:22:22.367.00:22:23.968 They have sloughed off envelopes, 00:22:23.968.00:22:28.234 and I think we have a still picture of NGC 2440, 00:22:28.234.00:22:31.801 and all of that red and yellow and streamers and blobs 00:22:31.801.00:22:34.968 and everything, that originally was part of the star, 00:22:34.968.00:22:38.033 and it sloughed that material off, 00:22:38.033.00:22:40.000 and the interior part, 00:22:40.000.00:22:42.234 that little white dot there, is a star. 00:22:42.234.00:22:45.968 Well, you can see it easily, but on the ground 00:22:45.968.00:22:48.334 I've never been able to see it for real, 00:22:48.334.00:22:50.234 and in fact, we took this picture 00:22:50.234.00:22:52.567 so that we would know where to tell the telescope 00:22:52.567.00:22:55.701 to point the next time when we came back to get a spectrum, 00:22:55.701.00:22:58.167 and this illustrates a problem that we had, 00:22:58.167.00:23:01.067 that these most spectacular cases 00:23:01.067.00:23:04.100 where you have extremely hot stars, 00:23:04.100.00:23:07.501 they're very faint, and besides that, to make it worse, 00:23:07.501.00:23:09.267 you're seeing them against the glow in the nebula. 00:23:09.267.00:23:12.234 You can't pick them out, but with the Hubble, 00:23:12.234.00:23:14.801 we were able to just see it right away, 00:23:14.801.00:23:16.767 and we even could make measurements on it 00:23:16.767.00:23:19.501 to find out how hot it was, and as it turns out, 00:23:19.501.00:23:25.367 it's at a minimum of 200.000 degrees Celsius. 00:23:25.367.00:23:27.100 so this, as far as I know, 00:23:27.100.00:23:30.501 is the hottest star on record that we know of. 00:23:30.501.00:23:35.434 -I think we'll submit that record for the Guinness book, 00:23:35.434.00:23:39.968 but I'm being told that we're running a little bit behind. 00:23:39.968.00:23:42.334 I want to alert the controllers 00:23:42.334.00:23:44.667 that we're going to skip the supernova 00:23:44.667.00:23:49.234 and continue maybe with the theme of star clusters. 00:23:49.234.00:23:51.067 We've heard from Bruce Margon 00:23:51.067.00:23:54.901 about these remarkable new findings 00:23:54.901.00:23:58.667 about the interiors of clusters of very old stars. 00:23:58.667.00:24:00.234 We've heard from Sally Heap 00:24:00.234.00:24:02.901 about a very strange kind of cluster 00:24:02.901.00:24:05.634 that we have yet to fully understand 00:24:05.634.00:24:10.534 of densely packed, very young and massive stars, 00:24:10.534.00:24:13.133 but there's still something else that Hubble... 00:24:13.133.00:24:14.267 One of Hubble's greatest hits, 00:24:14.267.00:24:16.234 it's one of Dan Weedman's favorites, 00:24:16.234.00:24:21.834 and that's a case of what may be newborn old-star clusters. 00:24:21.834.00:24:23.234 What is that about? 00:24:23.234.00:24:24.467 -Well, let's try to explain it a little more thoroughly 00:24:24.467.00:24:27.367 and take some time to look at the next picture. 00:24:27.367.00:24:28.934 I believe in our most recent show, 00:24:28.934.00:24:30.567 just 10 days or 2 weeks ago, 00:24:30.567.00:24:31.734 we talked about some things 00:24:31.734.00:24:33.133 happening in the centers of galaxies, 00:24:33.133.00:24:34.934 and I didn't want to reproduce some pictures 00:24:34.934.00:24:36.734 we showed you at that time. 00:24:36.734.00:24:38.100 It turns out, however, in this case, 00:24:38.100.00:24:40.133 we are once more looking into the center 00:24:40.133.00:24:42.701 of a very active, unusual, explosive galaxy, 00:24:42.701.00:24:45.434 which happens to have a quasar in it, 00:24:45.434.00:24:47.701 and the quasar, which is the center of the galaxy, 00:24:47.701.00:24:50.167 is just to the upper right of center in this picture. 00:24:50.167.00:24:52.868 The brightest blue light you see actually is light 00:24:52.868.00:24:55.334 shining from a quasar buried in the center of the galaxy, 00:24:55.334.00:24:58.267 but that's not what we want to talk about this time. 00:24:58.267.00:24:59.934 What you should concentrate on in this picture 00:24:59.934.00:25:03.367 are all those other blue dots, blue dots all over the image. 00:25:03.367.00:25:05.701 They're sort of immersed in with some multicolored 00:25:05.701.00:25:07.400 darker material, 00:25:07.400.00:25:09.467 and that darker material probably is 00:25:09.467.00:25:11.567 the leftovers of another galaxy, 00:25:11.567.00:25:14.167 which once upon a time collided not so long ago 00:25:14.167.00:25:16.534 with the galaxy that contained the quasar, 00:25:16.534.00:25:18.334 and by some extraordinary process, 00:25:18.334.00:25:20.701 that collision stimulated the formation 00:25:20.701.00:25:23.767 of large numbers of clusters of stars, 00:25:23.767.00:25:26.801 and each of those small blue dots you see 00:25:26.801.00:25:30.000 apparently is an individual globular cluster 00:25:30.000.00:25:34.234 born not so many hundreds of millions of years ago. 00:25:34.234.00:25:36.634 Now, this is an example of one picture, 00:25:36.634.00:25:38.901 and it's probably the most dramatic case in Hubble, 00:25:38.901.00:25:40.567 actually, of one picture 00:25:40.567.00:25:43.667 which totally changed our way of thinking. 00:25:43.667.00:25:47.467 What happens is that we have normally, conventionally, 00:25:47.467.00:25:49.167 in the usual paradigm of astronomy, 00:25:49.167.00:25:50.801 thought of globular clusters 00:25:50.801.00:25:53.200 as the oldest groups of stars in the universe, 00:25:53.200.00:25:55.133 groups of stars which somehow represented 00:25:55.133.00:25:56.868 the skeleton of galaxies 00:25:56.868.00:25:58.667 that formed in the very beginning, 00:25:58.667.00:26:01.400 and yet now, here we see before our very eyes 00:26:01.400.00:26:04.901 a whole system of globular clusters forming instantaneously 00:26:04.901.00:26:07.501 and not so very long ago, very recently, in fact, 00:26:07.501.00:26:09.868 as far as time in the universe is concerned, 00:26:09.868.00:26:13.434 and what that tells me is that we may have been very wrong 00:26:13.434.00:26:15.634 about our theories of entire galaxy formation. 00:26:15.634.00:26:18.100 It may be that galaxies didn't primarily form 00:26:18.100.00:26:19.934 at one instant 15 billion years ago. 00:26:19.934.00:26:21.934 but that, in fact, the formation of galaxies, 00:26:21.934.00:26:24.901 the formation of the structure that we recognize as galaxies, 00:26:24.901.00:26:27.667 is something that's ongoing, and it's an... 00:26:27.667.00:26:30.234 And just one picture can change your way of thinking about this, 00:26:30.234.00:26:32.868 and when I saw that group of globular clusters 00:26:32.868.00:26:35.033 having formed fairly recently in the vicinity of a galaxy, 00:26:35.033.00:26:36.567 I suddenly realized that the way I've been thinking 00:26:36.567.00:26:37.667 about globular clusters 00:26:37.667.00:26:40.467 all these years wasn't completely right. 00:26:40.467.00:26:43.267 -Well, we... I think, first of all, 00:26:43.267.00:26:46.434 it's a terrific illustration of the fact that you find, 00:26:46.434.00:26:48.167 I think, in just about every field of science... 00:26:48.167.00:26:52.467 You certainly find it throughout astronomy and modern astronomy, 00:26:52.467.00:26:55.667 especially as we look out new windows on the universe 00:26:55.667.00:26:57.567 and different forms of radiation 00:26:57.567.00:26:59.267 that satellites allow us to observe, 00:26:59.267.00:27:01.267 and the radio telescopes on the ground 00:27:01.267.00:27:03.801 did this before we had a space program, 00:27:03.801.00:27:06.601 and that is that, 00:27:06.601.00:27:08.868 when you find the thing that you're not looking for, 00:27:08.868.00:27:12.067 that's often the biggest surprise of all. 00:27:12.067.00:27:16.200 You mentioned how one picture 00:27:16.200.00:27:18.167 can completely change our thinking, 00:27:18.167.00:27:21.968 and we do have a distinguished theorist on my far right. 00:27:21.968.00:27:24.701 We're going to get to him before long and ask him 00:27:24.701.00:27:30.000 if one picture is worth a thousand theories or not. 00:27:30.000.00:27:32.100 -Much of his theories were wrong. 00:27:32.100.00:27:33.834 -And getting to John Bahcall, 00:27:33.834.00:27:36.567 no astronomical briefing is complete 00:27:36.567.00:27:39.434 before the cosmologist sings, 00:27:39.434.00:27:41.901 and John Bahcall has been humming along... 00:27:41.901.00:27:44.801 -I don't think you want to hear me sing. 00:27:44.801.00:27:46.133 Kids don't want to hear me sing. 00:27:46.133.00:27:50.667 -John Bahcall has been doing some groundbreaking, 00:27:50.667.00:27:54.534 if I can say that, of a space-based telescope, 00:27:54.534.00:27:59.968 investigations of a larger universe around us, 00:27:59.968.00:28:03.100 and of course, no such study is complete 00:28:03.100.00:28:05.934 without looking for dark matter, 00:28:05.934.00:28:08.400 and tell us a little bit about what you've been doing, John. 00:28:08.400.00:28:12.534 -Well, we've been looking for dark matter in two ways, Steve. 00:28:12.534.00:28:15.834 Both of them use quasars, which are very far away. 00:28:15.834.00:28:18.267 In the first one, we looked when the telescope 00:28:18.267.00:28:23.067 was otherwise idle at over 350 quasars, 00:28:23.067.00:28:24.667 which are very far away, 00:28:24.667.00:28:26.501 and we used them like flashlights 00:28:26.501.00:28:29.300 to illuminate the material along the line of sight 00:28:29.300.00:28:32.567 between us and almost the edge of the universe, 00:28:32.567.00:28:34.901 and we look for what Einstein taught us 00:28:34.901.00:28:38.300 was lenses being formed by gravity. 00:28:38.300.00:28:41.334 Einstein taught us that gravity can form a lens 00:28:41.334.00:28:42.667 in the same way that your glasses 00:28:42.667.00:28:45.534 and my glasses form lenses. 00:28:45.534.00:28:47.100 From ground-based observations, 00:28:47.100.00:28:51.300 which did not have the clarity of the HST images, 00:28:51.300.00:28:53.534 we thought that when we looked at these quasars, 00:28:53.534.00:28:55.868 we would see something like one in four 00:28:55.868.00:28:57.834 would form multiple images 00:28:57.834.00:28:59.734 because gravity would pull on the light 00:28:59.734.00:29:01.534 and make multiple images, 00:29:01.534.00:29:04.667 but if we see the first of the still pictures, 00:29:04.667.00:29:06.701 we'll see a color picture, 00:29:06.701.00:29:09.567 and you see it right there, a color picture of an objective 00:29:09.567.00:29:11.267 that's almost at the edge of the Universe, 00:29:11.267.00:29:14.367 when the Universe was only a few percent of its current age. 00:29:14.367.00:29:15.901 -These are four different pictures of it. 00:29:15.901.00:29:18.000 -This is four different pictures in four colors 00:29:18.000.00:29:21.167 because Einstein told us that gravity is colorblind, 00:29:21.167.00:29:25.000 so if it's really a lens formed by gravity, 00:29:25.000.00:29:27.934 then the ratio of the intensities 00:29:27.934.00:29:29.400 in those two images 00:29:29.400.00:29:32.100 ought to be the same no matter what the color is, 00:29:32.100.00:29:34.334 and that was one of the key tests to show that this was... 00:29:34.334.00:29:38.567 -That, I guess, is how you know that the little guy 00:29:38.567.00:29:40.400 is not just a foreground star... 00:29:40.400.00:29:41.601 -That's right. 00:29:41.601.00:29:45.300 We've subsequently taken spectra of these, 00:29:45.300.00:29:47.634 both the small and the large image, 00:29:47.634.00:29:50.334 and see that they have the same distribution of light, 00:29:50.334.00:29:53.367 but already in the four colors that you saw there, 00:29:53.367.00:29:56.200 we knew that it was an Einstein lens, 00:29:56.200.00:29:58.567 and so we're using these two objects, 00:29:58.567.00:30:00.300 which are very far away, 00:30:00.300.00:30:02.501 to tell us how much there is between us 00:30:02.501.00:30:03.834 and the edge of the Universe. 00:30:03.834.00:30:05.400 -You said... According to your latest count, 00:30:05.400.00:30:09.534 you said you've looked at 350 individual quasar targets... 00:30:09.534.00:30:11.000 -That's right. -Trying to find evidence 00:30:11.000.00:30:12.100 of gravitational lensing, 00:30:12.100.00:30:13.834 and is this still the only one you found? 00:30:13.834.00:30:15.968 -This is the... -Is this a Hubble hit or a miss? 00:30:15.968.00:30:17.400 -This is a fantastic hit. 00:30:17.400.00:30:19.334 This is a big surprise because, 00:30:19.334.00:30:21.634 with the imperfect pictures that we saw from the ground, 00:30:21.634.00:30:24.234 we thought one in four would form multiple images. 00:30:24.234.00:30:25.934 -But in fact, you found one in 350. 00:30:25.934.00:30:27.501 -One in 350, so that's... 00:30:27.501.00:30:30.000 -Now, what does that tell you about dark matter out there? 00:30:30.000.00:30:33.667 -Well, that tells us that there is not a lot of it in the form 00:30:33.667.00:30:36.300 in which it could form images, in which it was condensed... 00:30:36.300.00:30:38.033 -Concentrated masses. -Into the center or so, 00:30:38.033.00:30:39.834 so that the gravity would really pull hard 00:30:39.834.00:30:41.734 on the light that came nearby, 00:30:41.734.00:30:44.534 and that's already showed another result, 00:30:44.534.00:30:46.834 which is of relevance 00:30:46.834.00:30:50.534 to something that Einstein proposed in the 1930s, 00:30:50.534.00:30:53.367 that a constant that he introduced to describe 00:30:53.367.00:30:55.934 how the Universe developed in time, 00:30:55.934.00:30:57.634 that constant must be much smaller 00:30:57.634.00:30:59.334 than many theorists had speculated. 00:30:59.334.00:31:02.501 -And here comes the dread term, "lambda-dominated Universe." 00:31:02.501.00:31:03.701 -No. -No, no, no. 00:31:03.701.00:31:06.000 -You don't have to say that because I... 00:31:06.000.00:31:09.734 Are you saying that these observations rule out a Universe 00:31:09.734.00:31:12.534 which is continuing to accelerate? 00:31:12.534.00:31:13.667 A Universe... 00:31:13.667.00:31:14.901 -The Big Bang getting faster and faster? 00:31:14.901.00:31:17.200 -No. This rules out the extreme versions of that, 00:31:17.200.00:31:19.367 which have been suggested recently 00:31:19.367.00:31:20.968 and makes that untenable 00:31:20.968.00:31:25.968 because if there were universes of that kind, 00:31:25.968.00:31:28.567 we would expect not to see one out of 350 00:31:28.567.00:31:31.334 but something like 40 or 50 out of 350. 00:31:31.334.00:31:32.367 -Right. -And we didn't, 00:31:32.367.00:31:33.634 so that's just completely out. 00:31:33.634.00:31:35.200 That theory is one of the theories 00:31:35.200.00:31:37.067 that we can put in the wastebasket. 00:31:37.067.00:31:39.434 -It's also a beautiful illustration of how sometimes 00:31:39.434.00:31:40.567 not seeing something 00:31:40.567.00:31:42.400 can be just as important as seeing something, 00:31:42.400.00:31:44.767 once you understand well enough how your instrument works. 00:31:44.767.00:31:48.067 -It's a very clear result, and one of the results which, 00:31:48.067.00:31:51.367 when we were advertising what Space Telescope would do, 00:31:51.367.00:31:53.801 we never envisioned this way of observing, 00:31:53.801.00:31:56.300 and we never envisioned attacking this problem. 00:31:56.300.00:31:58.734 -We didn't know that gravitational lenses 00:31:58.734.00:32:00.334 actually existed observationally... 00:32:00.334.00:32:01.334 -That's right. 00:32:01.334.00:32:02.501 -When Hubble was being designed. 00:32:02.501.00:32:05.567 -Designed, yeah. -At least in the early stages. 00:32:05.567.00:32:07.367 Excuse me. 00:32:07.367.00:32:08.701 The picture we've just seen, 00:32:08.701.00:32:10.934 many of the science writers in the NASA Auditorium, 00:32:10.934.00:32:13.801 here at NASA Headquarters today, have seen before. 00:32:13.801.00:32:16.667 That was announced a few months ago, but, John, 00:32:16.667.00:32:19.901 you have recently completed 00:32:19.901.00:32:23.734 a new study of the so-called Huchra lens, 00:32:23.734.00:32:27.934 a very elaborate gravitationally lensed image. 00:32:27.934.00:32:29.701 -That's right. -And you've made a measurement 00:32:29.701.00:32:31.067 with Hubble 00:32:31.067.00:32:35.667 of a precision that's unprecedented in the field. 00:32:35.667.00:32:36.801 Tell us about it. 00:32:36.801.00:32:38.367 -Well, three of us in Princeton, Hans-Walter Rix, 00:32:38.367.00:32:40.434 a young German astronomer, 00:32:40.434.00:32:42.434 Don Schneider, who is also at the Institute, 00:32:42.434.00:32:47.300 and myself, have studied this image which John Huchra found. 00:32:47.300.00:32:50.400 John Huchra, as you know, has the Midas Touch. 00:32:50.400.00:32:52.968 If you were... -He's an astronomer at 00:32:52.968.00:32:55.934 the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Massachusetts. 00:32:55.934.00:32:57.300 -That's right. 00:32:57.300.00:32:59.267 That's right, and John found, to his astonishment, 00:32:59.267.00:33:00.601 that he had, 00:33:00.601.00:33:02.701 in one of the galaxies that he was looking at, 00:33:02.701.00:33:08.434 he found a quasar which is very, very much behind a nearby galaxy 00:33:08.434.00:33:10.901 almost lined up at the center of the galaxy, 00:33:10.901.00:33:14.033 and if you were God and just throwing quasars 00:33:14.033.00:33:16.367 behind galaxies at random, 00:33:16.367.00:33:19.400 you'd have to make 3.000 universes at least 00:33:19.400.00:33:22.734 before you would make a case this beautiful. 00:33:22.734.00:33:25.667 -A perfect lineup of the Earth, 00:33:25.667.00:33:28.400 the galaxy, and the quasar far beyond it 00:33:28.400.00:33:30.968 that the galaxy is gravitationally lensing. 00:33:30.968.00:33:33.767 -That's right, and I hope we'll see this picture now. 00:33:33.767.00:33:36.734 This is a picture which you get to see 00:33:36.734.00:33:38.501 because at the Institute for Advanced Study, 00:33:38.501.00:33:41.200 we're currently having an art show, 00:33:41.200.00:33:42.901 which is going to be judged, 00:33:42.901.00:33:45.000 and we took advantage of our HST picture 00:33:45.000.00:33:47.934 to make something which we thought was beautiful, 00:33:47.934.00:33:49.667 and I don't know how the judges are going to... 00:33:49.667.00:33:51.100 -Tell us what's what. 00:33:51.100.00:33:52.133 What are these white dots, and what's the red circle? 00:33:52.133.00:33:53.334 -Okay. -How many have you measured? 00:33:53.334.00:33:55.567 -Right, and, first of all, the big blue thing 00:33:55.567.00:33:59.534 is a spiral galaxy, which is very nearby. 00:33:59.534.00:34:03.234 The four white dots which are almost concentric 00:34:03.234.00:34:04.968 with the central white dot, 00:34:04.968.00:34:10.133 those four white dots are images of the same distant quasar, 00:34:10.133.00:34:11.634 and the central white dot 00:34:11.634.00:34:14.467 is actually the brightest point in the center of the galaxy, 00:34:14.467.00:34:15.834 slightly off-center 00:34:15.834.00:34:18.701 from the four points of the quasar image, 00:34:18.701.00:34:23.267 and the red is just the internal part of the galaxy. 00:34:23.267.00:34:26.968 And the three of us have measured the amount of matter 00:34:26.968.00:34:29.534 that's in this central image 00:34:29.534.00:34:31.834 because we can tell how far away 00:34:31.834.00:34:33.501 and what the relative brightnesses 00:34:33.501.00:34:37.534 of those four images are in this central part. 00:34:37.534.00:34:39.734 -The idea is that the quasar light 00:34:39.734.00:34:41.434 essentially passing through this galaxy 00:34:41.434.00:34:44.300 has been bent in its path by the gravity of the galaxy. 00:34:44.300.00:34:45.467 -That's right. That's right. 00:34:45.467.00:34:47.133 -And by determining the amount of that bending, 00:34:47.133.00:34:50.701 you have measured very precisely the gravity of the galaxy 00:34:50.701.00:34:52.167 using only the light from that quasar. 00:34:52.167.00:34:53.200 -Precisely. That's right, 00:34:53.200.00:34:54.467 and we've been able to measure the mass 00:34:54.467.00:34:56.767 within the central region of this galaxy 00:34:56.767.00:34:58.100 to an accuracy of two percent, 00:34:58.100.00:35:00.801 which I believe is the most accurate measurement 00:35:00.801.00:35:05.501 made in extragalactic astronomy of the mass of another galaxy. 00:35:05.501.00:35:07.934 -How massive is it? -It's a little bit more than... 00:35:07.934.00:35:10.701 In this central region is a little bit more than 00:35:10.701.00:35:13.968 10 billion solar masses. 00:35:13.968.00:35:16.167 -With that figure to contemplate, 00:35:16.167.00:35:18.968 I want to notify our director, Carl Bennett, 00:35:18.968.00:35:22.434 that we will be continuing to be a little bit behind schedule. 00:35:22.434.00:35:25.868 We're going to skip the two cartoons. 00:35:25.868.00:35:27.767 -They weren't funny cartoons, anyway, so... 00:35:27.767.00:35:29.601 -No, probably just as well, 00:35:29.601.00:35:33.801 and go on to another area 00:35:33.801.00:35:37.601 where two teams using the Hubble Telescope, 00:35:37.601.00:35:40.834 one of them led by John Bahcall and he, in particular, 00:35:40.834.00:35:43.067 has used a Faint Object Spectrograph, 00:35:43.067.00:35:46.234 an instrument that needs to be mentioned now and then, 00:35:46.234.00:35:48.667 and you've been studying 00:35:48.667.00:35:51.934 the so-called intergalactic hydrogen clouds, 00:35:51.934.00:35:53.501 if that's what they are, 00:35:53.501.00:35:56.334 and you've learned some basic new properties 00:35:56.334.00:35:59.167 of this unusual little-known component of the universe, 00:35:59.167.00:36:01.434 but it's not clear whether you've answered a question 00:36:01.434.00:36:03.434 or raised some -- tell us a little bit about that. 00:36:03.434.00:36:05.834 -All right. I think, Steve, 00:36:05.834.00:36:07.934 I'd like to begin just by differing 00:36:07.934.00:36:12.234 with how you described what Space Telescope is doing 00:36:12.234.00:36:14.601 and what these 2 years have been like. 00:36:14.601.00:36:18.801 -Okay. -I think this retrospective 00:36:18.801.00:36:21.133 is very much like a kid's birthday party 00:36:21.133.00:36:25.133 where every kid gets some really spectacular presents 00:36:25.133.00:36:27.534 in his pack to take home, 00:36:27.534.00:36:29.267 but no kid knows what he's going to get 00:36:29.267.00:36:30.400 before he goes to the party, 00:36:30.400.00:36:33.501 and, in this case, we expected to observe 00:36:33.501.00:36:38.601 what people had seen at very distant times, 00:36:38.601.00:36:41.300 at very early times and at very great distances, 00:36:41.300.00:36:42.767 primordial hydrogen clouds 00:36:42.767.00:36:45.534 but very few of them with the space telescope. 00:36:45.534.00:36:50.167 In fact, our first surprise and our first present 00:36:50.167.00:36:52.267 was that there were more than 10 times 00:36:52.267.00:36:55.968 as many clouds of that type, hydrogen clouds, 00:36:55.968.00:36:58.834 as we would have expected from extrapolation. 00:36:58.834.00:37:05.200 The second big surprise and one which we just recently glimpsed 00:37:05.200.00:37:08.667 is that instead of being the building blocks 00:37:08.667.00:37:11.634 of all of structure, the galaxies, 00:37:11.634.00:37:15.501 as is the common explanation for what's seen far away, 00:37:15.501.00:37:17.334 we found, with Space Telescope, 00:37:17.334.00:37:19.901 when we could look nearby at these clouds 00:37:19.901.00:37:23.400 that we were seeing, that they were associated with galaxies, 00:37:23.400.00:37:25.734 so not only are there very many more of them 00:37:25.734.00:37:27.234 than we had anticipated, 00:37:27.234.00:37:30.667 we also find that they're associated with galaxies 00:37:30.667.00:37:32.934 in cases when we can check, 00:37:32.934.00:37:36.300 and it looks like galaxies have absolutely huge halos, 00:37:36.300.00:37:40.701 maybe the remnants of gas that's left over 00:37:40.701.00:37:43.634 when the galaxies were formed, 00:37:43.634.00:37:46.934 so this has been completely unanticipated, 00:37:46.934.00:37:51.934 a wonderful bonus to what we had hoped to see, 00:37:51.934.00:37:55.200 and we're just unwrapping our presents now 00:37:55.200.00:37:58.934 to find out what it is that we've really discovered. 00:37:58.934.00:38:01.934 -The search strategy there being to observe, again, 00:38:01.934.00:38:03.534 a distant quasar and look at something 00:38:03.534.00:38:05.033 that's happened to the light 00:38:05.033.00:38:06.934 as it came to us, and, in this case, 00:38:06.934.00:38:09.067 what's happened is the light has been affected 00:38:09.067.00:38:11.200 by intervening clouds of material 00:38:11.200.00:38:12.901 which you couldn't otherwise have seen. 00:38:12.901.00:38:14.667 -That's right, and it's absorbed, 00:38:14.667.00:38:18.434 and where it's absorbed tells us where the material is, 00:38:18.434.00:38:20.467 and then with ground-based observations, 00:38:20.467.00:38:23.868 we've followed up and found, in some cases, 00:38:23.868.00:38:26.434 that there were actually galaxies there. 00:38:26.434.00:38:29.801 -Well, I think Hubble looks far-out, 00:38:29.801.00:38:32.801 and we certainly could go on forever talking about it, 00:38:32.801.00:38:35.334 but all good things must come to an end 00:38:35.334.00:38:37.601 or at least to the question period. 00:38:37.601.00:38:39.334 Now, let me just sum up for a minute 00:38:39.334.00:38:43.734 before I turn it over to Paula Cleggett-Haleim. 00:38:43.734.00:38:46.467 What we've seen is, there's a lot of terrific stuff 00:38:46.467.00:38:48.767 that's come out of the Hubble Space Telescope 00:38:48.767.00:38:51.901 in the last 2 years, and some of the new findings, 00:38:51.901.00:38:53.367 we learned today, 00:38:53.367.00:38:57.501 are the first accurate measurement 00:38:57.501.00:38:59.868 of the central core of the galaxy, 00:38:59.868.00:39:04.801 turns out to be 10 billion times the mass of the Sun. 00:39:04.801.00:39:07.133 We learned about one of the hottest stars 00:39:07.133.00:39:08.868 in the Universe, 00:39:08.868.00:39:12.334 clearly resolved from its bright surrounding nebulosity 00:39:12.334.00:39:13.501 for the first time, 00:39:13.501.00:39:15.267 and Sally Heap told us 00:39:15.267.00:39:17.367 that star has a temperature of about 00:39:17.367.00:39:21.801 360.000 degrees Fahrenheit or more. 00:39:21.801.00:39:25.467 Sally also showed us the clearest view yet 00:39:25.467.00:39:29.133 of one of the most unusual star clusters in the Universe, 00:39:29.133.00:39:33.834 R136a, where 47 or more stars, 00:39:33.834.00:39:37.067 probably all of them much more massive than the Sun, 00:39:37.067.00:39:41.133 are packed within a radius of 0.8 light-years, 00:39:41.133.00:39:44.067 or from one end to the other of the picture 00:39:44.067.00:39:46.300 she showed us is just a little bit more 00:39:46.300.00:39:49.834 than one-third of the way from the Sun to another star. 00:39:49.834.00:39:53.434 And on the video tape, we saw Professor Caldwell 00:39:53.434.00:39:58.100 from York University in Ontario, York, Ontario, Canada, 00:39:58.100.00:40:02.868 telling us, giving us a first glimpse of Hubble's 00:40:02.868.00:40:07.000 first ultraviolet photographs ever made of the northern, 00:40:07.000.00:40:11.133 or either, auroral oval on the planet Jupiter. 00:40:11.133.00:40:15.167 The kind of information that picture contains 00:40:15.167.00:40:17.234 and its correlation with the data 00:40:17.234.00:40:18.734 of the Ulysses space probe 00:40:18.734.00:40:20.767 may enable us to tell 00:40:20.767.00:40:24.100 what drives the Northern Lights on Jupiter, 00:40:24.100.00:40:26.501 and Paula Cleggett, back to you. 00:40:26.501.00:40:28.801 -Thank you. Thank you. We can now take questions. 00:40:28.801.00:40:30.934 Please state your name and affiliation 00:40:30.934.00:40:32.367 before asking the question 00:40:32.367.00:40:35.601 and please wait for the microphone. 00:40:35.601.00:40:39.367 Okay, in the back here. 00:40:39.367.00:40:40.767 Yeah. 00:40:40.767.00:40:43.934 -Phil Chen, Earth News, I guess for John Bahcall. 00:40:43.934.00:40:46.267 After this version was discovered, 00:40:46.267.00:40:49.067 we were told that it would be not until after the MMR mission 00:40:49.067.00:40:51.834 that we'd get a better figure on the Hubble constant, 00:40:51.834.00:40:53.100 but everything you're telling us 00:40:53.100.00:40:54.767 is that you're getting some indirect methods 00:40:54.767.00:40:58.834 of getting in much closer than what we have before. 00:40:58.834.00:41:01.234 Until now, I've heard between 00:41:01.234.00:41:04.400 50 and 100 kilometers per megaparsec. 00:41:04.400.00:41:07.667 Can you narrow it down any closer? 00:41:11.000.00:41:13.734 -Well, I think you're quite right in describing 00:41:13.734.00:41:16.767 what the current state of astronomical opinion 00:41:16.767.00:41:18.100 is on that problem, 00:41:18.100.00:41:22.634 and I think there are approaches to address that problem 00:41:22.634.00:41:25.300 from not only with the Hubble Space Telescope 00:41:25.300.00:41:29.200 but with other astronomical telescopes. 00:41:29.200.00:41:31.434 I think that what you have to think about 00:41:31.434.00:41:32.667 with the Space Telescope 00:41:32.667.00:41:34.567 is not any particular problem. 00:41:34.567.00:41:37.501 I think if you think about the suite of problems 00:41:37.501.00:41:39.400 that we have addressed today, 00:41:39.400.00:41:41.934 none of them were the central problems 00:41:41.934.00:41:45.334 that we designed Space Telescope to deal with, 00:41:45.334.00:41:49.434 but all of them are fantastic advances, 00:41:49.434.00:41:51.467 and I think you have to think of Space Telescope 00:41:51.467.00:41:54.667 as an observatory, a multipurpose observatory, 00:41:54.667.00:41:57.167 which can solve different problems, 00:41:57.167.00:41:59.133 whatever are the most exciting problems 00:41:59.133.00:42:02.234 accessible to that information at the time, 00:42:02.234.00:42:04.834 and it may not be that the Hubble constant 00:42:04.834.00:42:07.767 is the most exciting or the most accessible problem 00:42:07.767.00:42:10.167 for Space Telescope at any given time, 00:42:10.167.00:42:13.000 but there are a fantastic suite of problems 00:42:13.000.00:42:15.300 that we want to answer with Space Telescope, 00:42:15.300.00:42:17.200 and astronomers just stand in line 00:42:17.200.00:42:20.067 to get their chance to take a crack 00:42:20.067.00:42:23.033 at the most vulnerable of those problems 00:42:23.033.00:42:24.834 at a current time. 00:42:24.834.00:42:28.667 -Okay, next. -For Dr. Moran or anyone, 00:42:28.667.00:42:32.968 could you tell us what chief thing, 00:42:32.968.00:42:35.667 if any, that you had hoped or expected to accomplish 00:42:35.667.00:42:38.467 in the first 2 years of this telescope 00:42:38.467.00:42:40.834 that you have not been able to do? 00:42:40.834.00:42:44.634 -Well, I think if you go way back, 00:42:44.634.00:42:48.767 Sally and I have a close colleague, John Brandt, 00:42:48.767.00:42:50.133 who's been instrumental 00:42:50.133.00:42:52.367 in helping develop the payload of Hubble, 00:42:52.367.00:42:55.400 who spent his whole life studying comets, 00:42:55.400.00:42:57.567 and he got into Hubble 00:42:57.567.00:43:02.067 in hopes that we might launch in time to see Halley's comet, 00:43:02.067.00:43:08.734 and, of course, that's one we missed for a variety of reasons. 00:43:08.734.00:43:09.934 -He'll get it next time. 00:43:09.934.00:43:12.167 -"He'll get it next time," Sally said. 00:43:12.167.00:43:13.434 He did get Comet Levy. 00:43:13.434.00:43:16.801 He and other astronomers saw comet Levy very early 00:43:16.801.00:43:19.667 on in our mission, and... 00:43:19.667.00:43:21.634 -Steve wouldn't... I would have guessed 00:43:21.634.00:43:23.534 that the one that astronomers 00:43:23.534.00:43:25.267 were most disappointed 00:43:25.267.00:43:32.067 was the inability to photograph the fuzz around quasars 00:43:32.067.00:43:35.000 because if the mirror for Space Telescope 00:43:35.000.00:43:37.100 had worked as we had hoped, 00:43:37.100.00:43:39.734 we would have been able to tell whether quasars, 00:43:39.734.00:43:42.133 which are the brightest objects in the universe, 00:43:42.133.00:43:45.767 reside in young galaxies or in old galaxies, 00:43:45.767.00:43:48.767 and we would have had a hint as to the process 00:43:48.767.00:43:52.734 by which this most energetic phenomenon occurs, 00:43:52.734.00:43:56.434 and it's for that particular observation 00:43:56.434.00:43:58.100 that I am most intensively looking forward 00:43:58.100.00:44:00.534 to the repair mission in 1994. 00:44:00.534.00:44:02.434 I personally, at least. -Or late '93. 00:44:02.434.00:44:05.667 -Late '93. -John? 00:44:05.667.00:44:07.167 -I'm John Holliman from CNN. 00:44:07.167.00:44:09.934 It's a similar question to Dale's question, 00:44:09.934.00:44:11.701 here, and it's... 00:44:11.701.00:44:15.501 Dr. Bahcall, you talk about the great presents that all you kids 00:44:15.501.00:44:17.968 at the birthday party are getting already... 00:44:17.968.00:44:21.133 -Please don't tell my mother about that. 00:44:21.133.00:44:23.901 -What kind of presents are you going to be able to get 00:44:23.901.00:44:26.868 that you're not able to get today when this thing is fixed? 00:44:26.868.00:44:30.434 -Well, just that. That's precisely it. 00:44:30.434.00:44:34.300 When the telescope is fixed, we will be able to take pictures 00:44:34.300.00:44:35.868 with much greater acuity, 00:44:35.868.00:44:38.634 with much greater resolution than we currently have, 00:44:38.634.00:44:40.234 and we will address questions like, 00:44:40.234.00:44:43.033 "How do the brightest objects in the Universe shine?" 00:44:43.033.00:44:46.434 because we will see the stuff around the quasars. 00:44:46.434.00:44:48.267 -We will be able to see things that are much, 00:44:48.267.00:44:49.934 much fainter than we can see now. 00:44:49.934.00:44:54.534 The essence of the issue in which we are... 00:44:54.534.00:44:56.133 what we've lost, is the ability 00:44:56.133.00:44:58.400 to see the faintest things in the Universe 00:44:58.400.00:45:00.968 because the slight smearing of the light 00:45:00.968.00:45:02.067 just makes it more difficult 00:45:02.067.00:45:03.467 to pick out the very faintest things, 00:45:03.467.00:45:05.567 and we thought we were going to find 00:45:05.567.00:45:06.934 the most distant quasars in the Universe. 00:45:06.934.00:45:09.300 Well, we still are, but we haven't done it yet. 00:45:09.300.00:45:12.167 In fact, that was the project I was supposed to set out to do, 00:45:12.167.00:45:14.300 and I was just devastated by the realization 00:45:14.300.00:45:15.667 that we wouldn't be able to do it, 00:45:15.667.00:45:17.667 and yet, I've seen now, 00:45:17.667.00:45:20.234 this incredible determination and energy 00:45:20.234.00:45:22.734 that the thing is going to be not only fixed, 00:45:22.734.00:45:24.067 but it's going to be improved. 00:45:24.067.00:45:25.934 And, in fact, after the servicing missions, 00:45:25.934.00:45:29.067 the imaging capabilities of Hubble Space Telescope 00:45:29.067.00:45:31.534 will be better than they would have been initially 00:45:31.534.00:45:34.734 because of improvements in the instrument that will go up. 00:45:34.734.00:45:37.267 -And there's another aspect of that. 00:45:37.267.00:45:39.701 All of us doing this great science 00:45:39.701.00:45:42.934 now have to work with about 25-percent efficiency 00:45:42.934.00:45:45.601 because the light is spread out over a larger region, 00:45:45.601.00:45:48.133 so even when we study things spectroscopically, 00:45:48.133.00:45:49.667 not just taking pictures, 00:45:49.667.00:45:51.734 we'll be able to do that with much greater efficiency, 00:45:51.734.00:45:53.133 so we should pick up... 00:45:53.133.00:45:54.567 We should be able to get four times 00:45:54.567.00:45:57.601 as many presents per birthday party 00:45:57.601.00:45:59.834 as we are now, when it's fixed. 00:45:59.834.00:46:01.501 -And one follow-up, when is it 00:46:01.501.00:46:03.734 going to be fixed to your satisfaction 00:46:03.734.00:46:06.300 based on what you know about repair missions and all of that? 00:46:06.300.00:46:09.300 -Well, the schedule right now is November of '93, 00:46:09.300.00:46:13.567 and the effort that people are putting in 00:46:13.567.00:46:15.000 to maintain that schedule 00:46:15.000.00:46:17.701 is truly awesome to me. 00:46:17.701.00:46:22.033 I, as an astronomer, really do appreciate 00:46:22.033.00:46:23.934 the hard work that folks are going to, 00:46:23.934.00:46:25.434 to try to get this job done 00:46:25.434.00:46:30.601 because everybody wants it desperately. 00:46:30.601.00:46:33.667 And it's not only the enthusiasm of looking forward 00:46:33.667.00:46:35.634 to getting it done, but it's the accomplishments 00:46:35.634.00:46:37.801 that we've seen the last 2 years, 00:46:37.801.00:46:42.033 has so much whetted our appetite for even what more there can -- 00:46:42.033.00:46:45.734 yet to come, that we're looking forward to the greatest 00:46:45.734.00:46:48.567 birthday party that we could conceive of 00:46:48.567.00:46:50.434 because now we have a taste of what that cake 00:46:50.434.00:46:52.133 is going to be like. 00:46:52.133.00:46:55.801 -Paul? -Paul Hoversten, USA Today. 00:46:55.801.00:46:59.400 Dr. Heap, a couple questions about this hot star. 00:46:59.400.00:47:02.868 How hot is it in, let's say, in comparison to the Sun, 00:47:02.868.00:47:08.701 and second of all, what do you know now, having found this? 00:47:08.701.00:47:13.734 I mean, what does this tell you more about galaxy formation 00:47:13.734.00:47:15.167 that you didn't know before? 00:47:15.167.00:47:19.234 In fact, what's the significance of having found this? 00:47:19.234.00:47:22.801 -Well, the Sun is about 6.000 degrees. so this. 00:47:22.801.00:47:26.167 at 200,000 degrees Celsius, 00:47:26.167.00:47:28.033 makes it more than 60... 00:47:28.033.00:47:30.567 I can't do the exact math in my head. 00:47:30.567.00:47:33.167 -Thirty-three, I was... -So it's 33, okay... 00:47:33.167.00:47:35.334 -It's something like 30 times hotter. 00:47:35.334.00:47:37.467 -Times hotter than the Sun, 00:47:37.467.00:47:39.801 and I would say that its basic importance 00:47:39.801.00:47:42.968 is that it has helped to confirm 00:47:42.968.00:47:46.501 the theories of stellar evolution. 00:47:46.501.00:47:55.167 There has been a longstanding theory by Paczynski at Princeton 00:47:55.167.00:47:58.534 about the evolution of stars like the Sun, 00:47:58.534.00:47:59.634 what they would be like, 00:47:59.634.00:48:01.067 and there has been this prediction 00:48:01.067.00:48:05.501 that some of them would become extremely hot, 00:48:05.501.00:48:09.901 and unfortunately, those stars that become extremely hot, 00:48:09.901.00:48:11.734 they only do so for a very short time, 00:48:11.734.00:48:14.200 so it's pretty hard to pick them out, 00:48:14.200.00:48:20.067 and then what's even harder is, they're hard to see, 00:48:20.067.00:48:23.534 and so this is one case now where we can say, 00:48:23.534.00:48:26.767 "Yeah, this is just what the theory predicted." 00:48:30.767.00:48:32.033 -Okay. 00:48:32.033.00:48:34.100 -Okay, Tom Sigford, Dallas Morning News. 00:48:34.100.00:48:37.801 For Dr. Bahcall, I didn't catch if you gave it 00:48:37.801.00:48:39.667 the designation of the galaxy 00:48:39.667.00:48:42.200 with the 10 billion solar masses, 00:48:42.200.00:48:45.234 and my question about it is, 00:48:45.234.00:48:47.400 what does your mass measurement 00:48:47.400.00:48:49.534 tell you about the mass-light ratio 00:48:49.534.00:48:55.400 and implications for amount of dark matter and Omega? 00:48:55.400.00:48:56.901 -Okay. 00:48:56.901.00:49:00.067 The reason why you didn't catch the designation of the galaxy 00:49:00.067.00:49:01.801 is that I don't remember phone numbers 00:49:01.801.00:49:03.334 or galaxy designations very well, 00:49:03.334.00:49:04.634 but if you come up afterwards, 00:49:04.634.00:49:06.767 I'll give you the right phone number. 00:49:06.767.00:49:08.734 It tells you that the mass-to-light ratio 00:49:08.734.00:49:12.834 for this galaxy is about 12 in the B band, 00:49:12.834.00:49:15.033 technical B band, which means that... 00:49:15.033.00:49:16.234 -Blue light. -Blue light, which means 00:49:16.234.00:49:17.534 that it's about like 00:49:17.534.00:49:19.567 the mass-to-light ratio as you find 00:49:19.567.00:49:22.400 for ordinary globular clusters in our own galaxy, 00:49:22.400.00:49:25.801 and, therefore, there isn't any dark matter 00:49:25.801.00:49:27.067 in the center of this galaxy 00:49:27.067.00:49:31.133 to a very high precision. 00:49:31.133.00:49:33.901 -Okay, next, please. -Jim Slade from ABC. 00:49:33.901.00:49:38.534 Dr. Heap, to flog this horse just a little bit more, 00:49:38.534.00:49:40.467 it was an interesting comparison to the Sun, 00:49:40.467.00:49:43.601 but what is the comparison in terms? 00:49:43.601.00:49:44.701 What makes this gee-whiz 00:49:44.701.00:49:50.167 in compared to the star-average heat? 00:49:50.167.00:49:51.567 -Star-average heat? 00:49:51.567.00:49:53.400 I didn't quite hear that. 00:49:53.400.00:49:55.734 -Jim, could you repeat that? 00:49:55.734.00:49:59.367 -You know, you gave us a number there, 00:49:59.367.00:50:01.100 why this was so interesting. 00:50:01.100.00:50:04.334 Tell us what the average temperature you're talking about 00:50:04.334.00:50:06.467 in comparative terms. 00:50:06.467.00:50:08.667 We know the Sun is sort of a minor star 00:50:08.667.00:50:11.934 compared to what you guys are looking at every day. 00:50:11.934.00:50:15.000 -Well, the typical star, your garden-variety star, 00:50:15.000.00:50:18.133 is the Sun, 6,000 degrees. 00:50:18.133.00:50:22.968 The stars in R136a, these very hot, massive stars, 00:50:22.968.00:50:25.400 they're 50,000 degrees. 00:50:25.400.00:50:27.367 Normally, we think that's the range, 00:50:27.367.00:50:31.701 from maybe 1,000 up to 50,000 degrees, 00:50:31.701.00:50:34.901 but there is a certain class of objects called central stars, 00:50:34.901.00:50:41.067 or planetaries, where they can have the full range from 1,000, 00:50:41.067.00:50:44.133 then all the way up to perhaps a million, 00:50:44.133.00:50:49.601 only they wouldn't be that way for more than 5 weeks. 00:50:52.434.00:50:54.901 -We'll take two more questions here before going to 00:50:54.901.00:50:57.167 the Institute for Space and Terrestrial Science 00:50:57.167.00:50:58.601 in Toronto, Ontario. Two more. 00:50:58.601.00:51:02.334 -Jan Hun, [Indistinct] for John Bahcall. 00:51:02.334.00:51:04.234 John, if you are putting all of those findings 00:51:04.234.00:51:07.133 together in one basket, 00:51:07.133.00:51:11.200 could you please try to outline the cosmological model 00:51:11.200.00:51:15.334 those findings are best in tune with? 00:51:15.334.00:51:17.567 -Okay. I think the... 00:51:17.567.00:51:22.200 There's one simple result which is easy to overlook 00:51:22.200.00:51:24.400 but, to me, is absolutely awesome 00:51:24.400.00:51:29.901 and is almost presumptuous that comes from these results, 00:51:29.901.00:51:34.601 and that is back to the very edges of the Universe, 00:51:34.601.00:51:38.267 the laws of physics which were formulated in the 1930s, 00:51:38.267.00:51:42.200 by Einstein largely, seem to apply, 00:51:42.200.00:51:48.767 and there's not a great deal out there 00:51:48.767.00:51:50.801 that we didn't already know about, 00:51:50.801.00:51:54.400 at least in a condensed form, such as in galaxies 00:51:54.400.00:51:58.734 or other things where a lot of matter is there. 00:51:58.734.00:52:07.400 So for me, it's humbling and awesome and, you know, 00:52:07.400.00:52:13.367 it makes you feel very modest that it's possible to have, 00:52:13.367.00:52:15.033 in 1930, 00:52:15.033.00:52:18.834 anticipated the way things would behave 00:52:18.834.00:52:22.334 based on pure reasoning 00:52:22.334.00:52:27.167 here on an absolutely negligible part of the Universe 00:52:27.167.00:52:30.267 about huge things, 00:52:30.267.00:52:32.968 how they would behave at the very earliest times 00:52:32.968.00:52:34.868 that we know about in the Universe. 00:52:34.868.00:52:38.400 So I would say that everything that we know about 00:52:38.400.00:52:42.000 is consistent with the cosmology 00:52:42.000.00:52:47.200 that was developed by Einstein and Friedmann 00:52:47.200.00:52:52.534 back in the 1930s, and fits very well, 00:52:52.534.00:52:55.067 and you may find that not surprising, 00:52:55.067.00:52:58.267 but I think we had no right to presume that, 00:52:58.267.00:53:02.100 and it's awesome to me that the human mind has achieved 00:53:02.100.00:53:03.934 that kind of synthesis. 00:53:03.934.00:53:05.501 -I have a little follow-up. 00:53:05.501.00:53:09.067 Tell me, if you would have to put your finger on the open 00:53:09.067.00:53:12.567 or the closed model, which way would you go? 00:53:12.567.00:53:15.200 -Gosh. 00:53:15.200.00:53:17.434 Are you talking about Monday, Wednesday and Friday, 00:53:17.434.00:53:19.400 or Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday? 00:53:19.400.00:53:21.968 I have no opinion. -Okay, Earl, 00:53:21.968.00:53:23.968 and then we'll go to Toronto. 00:53:23.968.00:53:26.300 -Earl Lang with Newsday. I was wondering if Dr. Heap 00:53:26.300.00:53:29.133 might be able to expand a little bit on why, 00:53:29.133.00:53:30.701 in this R136a, 00:53:30.701.00:53:32.634 you've found so many heavyweights 00:53:32.634.00:53:34.000 as opposed to lightweights. 00:53:34.000.00:53:37.067 I mean, does that still fit in within the cosmology 00:53:37.067.00:53:39.434 that Dr. Bahcall was just talking about? 00:53:39.434.00:53:41.200 -No, it doesn't have to do with cosmology, 00:53:41.200.00:53:45.200 but it has to do with star formation. 00:53:45.200.00:53:48.033 It's an interesting question to me why this happens, 00:53:48.033.00:53:53.334 and the easy way is to say it's either heredity or environment. 00:53:53.334.00:53:57.934 -Are you absolutely sure that if there were things which were not 00:53:57.934.00:54:00.100 very bright and very massive there, 00:54:00.100.00:54:02.934 that you wouldn't have missed them? 00:54:02.934.00:54:06.667 -Yes, that's a possibility, and so we did tests. 00:54:06.667.00:54:09.133 We said, "Okay, let's take the picture. 00:54:09.133.00:54:10.767 Now let's add some fake stars 00:54:10.767.00:54:14.734 on that would be like the less massive stars. 00:54:14.734.00:54:16.100 Could we detect them?" 00:54:16.100.00:54:17.634 And we found out that, no, 00:54:17.634.00:54:19.834 we couldn't detect the very lowest mass stars, 00:54:19.834.00:54:22.767 but we could detect ones of intermediate mass, 00:54:22.767.00:54:25.300 and we don't even see those, 00:54:25.300.00:54:27.300 so we're pretty sure of our findings. 00:54:27.300.00:54:29.100 But to get back to your question... 00:54:31.400.00:54:37.000 I think what's important is that we find out how stars form 00:54:37.000.00:54:40.033 and why they form the way that they do. 00:54:40.033.00:54:44.767 What we're seeing now is that stars in another galaxy 00:54:44.767.00:54:49.000 are forming in a different way than they are in our galaxy. 00:54:49.000.00:54:51.834 Well, the Large Magellanic Cloud, 00:54:51.834.00:54:59.234 the galaxy that R136a is in, is different from our galaxy. 00:54:59.234.00:55:02.000 First of all, it's a more primitive galaxy. 00:55:02.000.00:55:05.200 It hasn't had as many generations of stars 00:55:05.200.00:55:06.934 to build up the heavier elements. 00:55:06.934.00:55:09.534 That's going to affect the way stars form. 00:55:09.534.00:55:12.300 -I think Sally is maybe being too modest, though, 00:55:12.300.00:55:14.567 about the significance of this kind of discovery. 00:55:14.567.00:55:16.767 You've heard John Bahcall talk about dark matter. 00:55:16.767.00:55:18.234 We don't know what it is. 00:55:18.234.00:55:19.367 Sally has found a place 00:55:19.367.00:55:22.267 where preferentially very massive stars form. 00:55:22.267.00:55:23.734 Those stars are not going to live very long, 00:55:23.734.00:55:24.968 and when they're dead, 00:55:24.968.00:55:27.234 they're going to be dead very massive dark stars. 00:55:27.234.00:55:29.234 They're going to be large, 00:55:29.234.00:55:31.934 massive accumulations of dark matter. 00:55:31.934.00:55:33.968 If that happened enough times in the Universe, 00:55:33.968.00:55:35.501 it could go a long way toward explaining 00:55:35.501.00:55:38.467 the mysterious dark matter that John was talking about. 00:55:38.467.00:55:40.200 We need to explain some cosmological issues. 00:55:40.200.00:55:42.000 -Are you suggesting R136a 00:55:42.000.00:55:43.534 is going to become one big black hole? 00:55:43.534.00:55:46.734 -Nope, nope, lots of little dead massive stars, 00:55:46.734.00:55:50.367 probably collections of neutron stars 00:55:50.367.00:55:53.100 or denser things than that. 00:55:53.100.00:55:57.634 -I don't think that there's enough of the visible stars 00:55:57.634.00:56:00.701 around to make a significant dent in the dark matter... 00:56:00.701.00:56:02.801 -That's right, but that's what the point is. 00:56:02.801.00:56:05.567 If they preferentially formed in more massive configurations, 00:56:05.567.00:56:07.834 it's an example of what she was showing us, 00:56:07.834.00:56:09.634 and that had happened in a large measure 00:56:09.634.00:56:11.100 early on in the Universe, 00:56:11.100.00:56:14.000 there would have to be a great deal of their corpses around, 00:56:14.000.00:56:15.167 so that was the issue 00:56:15.167.00:56:16.467 in which I was trying to draw the connections. 00:56:16.467.00:56:18.634 -It's pretty far off quantitatively, I think. 00:56:18.634.00:56:23.234 -Yeah, but because it occurs in a galaxy that is more primitive, 00:56:23.234.00:56:25.234 maybe that's the way star clusters 00:56:25.234.00:56:27.534 formed here in our galaxy, 00:56:27.534.00:56:30.300 and maybe, as you say, these stars popped off. 00:56:30.300.00:56:32.501 You know, maybe we are here in the Milky Way 00:56:32.501.00:56:34.701 long after the party was over. That's my... 00:56:34.701.00:56:36.133 -The real answer to this gentleman's question, 00:56:36.133.00:56:37.367 let's be fair, as to, 00:56:37.367.00:56:38.567 "Why are more massive stars 00:56:38.567.00:56:39.901 forming here than our own galaxy?" 00:56:39.901.00:56:41.767 It's very simple, and it's, "Nobody knows." 00:56:41.767.00:56:44.033 -No, exactly. -That's really the point. 00:56:44.033.00:56:46.767 We don't understand how clouds fragment down to 00:56:46.767.00:56:49.567 individual stars. -We almost talked around that. 00:56:49.567.00:56:51.801 -We thought we had it figured out in the Milky Way. 00:56:51.801.00:56:54.200 We thought that mostly you form small-mass stars... 00:56:54.200.00:56:56.000 Because that's what we see in the Milky Way. 00:56:56.000.00:56:57.133 Maybe we couldn't write it all down -- 00:56:57.133.00:56:58.200 -Willy-nilly. 00:56:58.200.00:56:59.701 -But we thought the problem was settled, 00:56:59.701.00:57:02.501 and now she has the bad taste to come along with a cluster 00:57:02.501.00:57:04.534 that does exactly the opposite, and that's why it's interesting. 00:57:04.534.00:57:05.901 -But we weren't... -But this shows that this 00:57:05.901.00:57:07.801 is an area where observation leads the way. 00:57:07.801.00:57:09.701 You can't make assumptions anymore 00:57:09.701.00:57:13.367 that the star clusters elsewhere 00:57:13.367.00:57:14.834 are just like the ones here in our own galaxy. 00:57:14.834.00:57:15.901 -That's quite right. 00:57:15.901.00:57:17.133 -We weren't present at the creation, 00:57:17.133.00:57:19.334 and we're going to have to play catch-up. 00:57:19.334.00:57:20.734 -And with that, one more question 00:57:20.734.00:57:22.100 before we go to Toronto. 00:57:22.100.00:57:23.501 -I'm Erin Miller from CONUS. 00:57:23.501.00:57:25.767 At the risk of bringing this to such an elementary level, 00:57:25.767.00:57:27.234 and I apologize, for those of us 00:57:27.234.00:57:29.667 who are reporting to the average layman out there, 00:57:29.667.00:57:30.767 I wonder maybe, Dr. Moran, 00:57:30.767.00:57:32.801 if you could sort of sum up two things. 00:57:32.801.00:57:34.834 In the realm of all of your discoveries, 00:57:34.834.00:57:38.367 if you put some perspective on these two new ones today, 00:57:38.367.00:57:42.200 whether these are considered revolutionary or what? 00:57:42.200.00:57:44.834 And secondly, to the average person out there who says, 00:57:44.834.00:57:46.000 "What is all this worth, 00:57:46.000.00:57:48.601 you know, my taxpayer dollars going for this?" 00:57:48.601.00:57:50.567 What does it mean to the layman out there 00:57:50.567.00:57:52.033 that you have made these discoveries? 00:57:52.033.00:57:54.267 -Okay, let me... -A, a perspective, B, 00:57:54.267.00:57:55.400 a meaning and a justification. 00:57:55.400.00:57:57.501 -Let me take the second question first. 00:57:57.501.00:58:00.400 I think, first of all, the layman 00:58:00.400.00:58:03.767 and especially the taxpayer should know that, 00:58:03.767.00:58:05.200 as you've seen today, 00:58:05.200.00:58:10.033 the astronomers are very excited about all the exciting things 00:58:10.033.00:58:11.267 they're learning from Hubble. 00:58:11.267.00:58:14.968 We want to fix it and make it do the total job 00:58:14.968.00:58:16.467 it was designed for, 00:58:16.467.00:58:22.267 but there isn't time or money that's going to waste. 00:58:22.267.00:58:24.100 I think at a deeper level, 00:58:24.100.00:58:28.267 the reason that our nation does things like this, 00:58:28.267.00:58:32.067 and I should add European Space Agency also contributed 00:58:32.067.00:58:35.567 mightily to the development of the Hubble Telescope, 00:58:35.567.00:58:39.367 goes back to why we do basic research in the first place. 00:58:39.367.00:58:43.767 It's not the applied research that you expect to go 00:58:43.767.00:58:46.901 directly to your corporate bottom line 00:58:46.901.00:58:49.200 or your gross national product, 00:58:49.200.00:58:53.467 but it is the kind of endeavor 00:58:53.467.00:58:55.968 that opens people's minds, 00:58:55.968.00:58:58.901 both the grown-ups we have on the panels 00:58:58.901.00:59:00.968 and in the universities around the country 00:59:00.968.00:59:02.868 and the kids in school 00:59:02.868.00:59:05.467 and the kids that should be in school. 00:59:05.467.00:59:08.634 And what we find as we look around the world, 00:59:08.634.00:59:11.067 I think, at the present day, 00:59:11.067.00:59:13.100 and as we look back over history, 00:59:13.100.00:59:17.434 that the societies that move forward and go ahead 00:59:17.434.00:59:20.067 are the ones where they have good education, 00:59:20.067.00:59:22.434 where learning is valued and where, 00:59:22.434.00:59:25.434 when you have obtained your education, 00:59:25.434.00:59:28.200 you can put it to use 00:59:28.200.00:59:31.200 in research in exploring the unknown. 00:59:31.200.00:59:34.067 Then getting back to the new findings 00:59:34.067.00:59:37.167 that were announced today, 00:59:37.167.00:59:41.367 I must say that there's probably a few reporters out there... 00:59:41.367.00:59:42.801 I know I think John Wolford is listening 00:59:42.801.00:59:44.567 on an audio link in New York 00:59:44.567.00:59:49.334 who had been led to believe because that's what I thought, 00:59:49.334.00:59:51.000 that we were going to concentrate 00:59:51.000.00:59:52.133 on all the good stuff 00:59:52.133.00:59:53.767 we've learned over the last 2 years, 00:59:53.767.00:59:55.767 and then the new things we'd be announcing 00:59:55.767.00:59:59.000 would be examples of what we're finding every day 00:59:59.000.01:00:02.367 and not necessarily some of Hubble's greatest hits, 01:00:02.367.01:00:03.534 but as it's come out, 01:00:03.534.01:00:05.701 and as I've heard the comments of experts 01:00:05.701.01:00:08.534 who did the work and experts who didn't do the work 01:00:08.534.01:00:11.000 and are just been learning about it, 01:00:11.000.01:00:12.934 in some cases since yesterday, 01:00:12.934.01:00:17.067 I think that two of the things we've heard about today 01:00:17.067.01:00:20.701 have potential to wind up eventually in the textbooks 01:00:20.701.01:00:24.534 as very major findings, 01:00:24.534.01:00:28.300 and one of them is this star cluster 01:00:28.300.01:00:32.434 that really confirms what we've been thinking for a year or two 01:00:32.434.01:00:34.400 since we first started looking with Hubble, 01:00:34.400.01:00:35.767 that stars... 01:00:35.767.01:00:38.567 And maybe before there was some suspicion. 01:00:38.567.01:00:44.167 Some stars can form in ways or in groups very much 01:00:44.167.01:00:47.434 unlike what many of us might have expected. 01:00:47.434.01:00:49.834 I think for every finding that you get, 01:00:49.834.01:00:51.901 there will be a theorist out there 01:00:51.901.01:00:55.133 who may have approximately predicted it, 01:00:55.133.01:00:57.000 but once again, there's a difference 01:00:57.000.01:01:00.067 between having a lot of theories and having an observation. 01:01:00.067.01:01:02.434 It helps us narrow down the knowledge 01:01:02.434.01:01:03.734 of what is going on. 01:01:03.734.01:01:09.400 And the other one is something that John McCullough 01:01:09.400.01:01:12.100 told us that had two parts 01:01:12.100.01:01:15.834 that we didn't know until today, 01:01:15.834.01:01:18.000 or maybe in my case last night, 01:01:18.000.01:01:23.200 and that is that he's been able to measure 01:01:23.200.01:01:26.701 the very dense central core of the galaxy 01:01:26.701.01:01:30.834 to actually determine its mass with a precision of 2 percent. 01:01:30.834.01:01:34.868 I'm not sure that I can measure my mass on the scale 01:01:34.868.01:01:36.234 at home with that precision. 01:01:36.234.01:01:39.267 I'm not sure I'd want to, and the other thing is, 01:01:39.267.01:01:41.734 the corollary of that finding 01:01:41.734.01:01:44.400 that came out in the question period, 01:01:44.400.01:01:50.300 and that is that he believes that you have enough light 01:01:50.300.01:01:54.934 so that there are enough stars in the center of that galaxy 01:01:54.934.01:01:57.100 to account for all that mass 01:01:57.100.01:01:59.701 that's bending the light of the distant quasar 01:01:59.701.01:02:02.567 making this four-sided, 01:02:02.567.01:02:05.434 four-point image of the gravitational lens 01:02:05.434.01:02:06.934 image of the distant quasar, 01:02:06.934.01:02:09.634 that wherever he looks, 01:02:09.634.01:02:11.367 really looks hard for dark matter, 01:02:11.367.01:02:12.834 he's not finding much. 01:02:12.834.01:02:18.033 And yet there are lots of cosmological theories out there 01:02:18.033.01:02:19.901 that differ only in they can't agree 01:02:19.901.01:02:21.634 on what kind of dark matter 01:02:21.634.01:02:23.400 makes up 90 percent of the Universe. 01:02:23.400.01:02:25.868 Well, the harder we look, the harder it is to find, 01:02:25.868.01:02:30.200 and I think that is a really significant result, 01:02:30.200.01:02:32.868 even if it ends with a question. 01:02:32.868.01:02:36.667 -Okay, do we have any questions from Toronto? 01:02:36.667.01:02:39.434 This is the home institution of Dr. John Caldwell, 01:02:39.434.01:02:42.934 and you saw the video tape earlier. 01:02:42.934.01:02:45.667 -Michael Smith, the Toronto Star. 01:02:45.667.01:02:50.167 When the repair mission flies late in 1993, 01:02:50.167.01:02:52.934 will there be any aspects of the repairs 01:02:52.934.01:02:54.634 that will not be able to be done? 01:02:54.634.01:02:57.834 -Okay. 01:02:57.834.01:03:00.400 -Do you want to tell us we should answer that? 01:03:00.400.01:03:02.300 -Let's see. -I missed the question. 01:03:02.300.01:03:03.968 -Could we repeat that please? 01:03:03.968.01:03:06.834 -What will the repair mission not be able to do in '93? 01:03:06.834.01:03:10.701 -Sure. When the mission flies in '93, 01:03:10.701.01:03:14.467 will there be any aspects of the repairs 01:03:14.467.01:03:17.601 that will not be able to be done? 01:03:17.601.01:03:19.868 -John, you indicated that... Blake? 01:03:19.868.01:03:24.734 -I think that the mission, if successful, will accomplish 01:03:24.734.01:03:27.167 all of the highest priorities goals that we, 01:03:27.167.01:03:30.300 as astronomers, want to see accomplished. 01:03:30.300.01:03:34.734 The things that are most important to fix on HST 01:03:34.734.01:03:36.200 will be fixed, 01:03:36.200.01:03:40.133 the things that will keep us going with frontier discoveries 01:03:40.133.01:03:43.968 over the next decade could be repaired at the end of '93 01:03:43.968.01:03:46.200 or the beginning of '94, but I'd like to come back, 01:03:46.200.01:03:48.701 can I, just for a second to this question 01:03:48.701.01:03:50.367 of what the reporter 01:03:50.367.01:03:54.300 who wanted to address the question 01:03:54.300.01:03:59.634 of what to tell her readers was really the reason... 01:03:59.634.01:04:03.701 -TV viewers. -TV viewers what it was 01:04:03.701.01:04:05.534 that Space Telescope 01:04:05.534.01:04:07.400 was doing that was of importance to them 01:04:07.400.01:04:09.400 and why they should be interested, 01:04:09.400.01:04:13.234 and I think that's a very easy question to answer 01:04:13.234.01:04:15.834 because everybody that I encounter, 01:04:15.834.01:04:19.701 from the person that's the checkout counter 01:04:19.701.01:04:22.767 at the supermarket to the person that puts gas, 01:04:22.767.01:04:25.200 actually, in our car in Princeton, 01:04:25.200.01:04:26.934 are interested in -- 01:04:26.934.01:04:29.934 and when they hear I'm associated with Space Telescope, 01:04:29.934.01:04:32.901 ask me, "Have we found any other people out there?" 01:04:32.901.01:04:36.300 They ask me how long we're going to be around. 01:04:36.300.01:04:38.067 "What's about this strange galaxy?" 01:04:38.067.01:04:40.167 What there is at the end of the Universe, 01:04:40.167.01:04:42.834 what there was at the beginning, 01:04:42.834.01:04:47.601 they are all asking questions about what there is out there, 01:04:47.601.01:04:50.000 and turns on the youngest people 01:04:50.000.01:04:52.868 and the most curious of all ages, 01:04:52.868.01:04:57.868 and it's that kind of curiosity which keeps people in science 01:04:57.868.01:05:01.067 and mathematic and technology in general, 01:05:01.067.01:05:04.133 and it's a source of pride for our country. 01:05:04.133.01:05:07.300 It's also something which makes our country stronger 01:05:07.300.01:05:11.133 because we are able to compete in the technical areas. 01:05:11.133.01:05:14.601 So I think if you just tell them about the wonderful things 01:05:14.601.01:05:15.767 that we're finding, 01:05:15.767.01:05:17.934 there you'll find an enormous interest 01:05:17.934.01:05:19.400 in the person 01:05:19.400.01:05:20.901 that puts gas in your car 01:05:20.901.01:05:24.501 or the person that's checking you out at the supermarket. 01:05:24.501.01:05:26.868 -Okay, that's good. 01:05:26.868.01:05:30.767 Any more from Toronto? 01:05:30.767.01:05:32.067 -That was very interesting. 01:05:32.067.01:05:33.667 It's Mike Smith from the Toronto Star again, 01:05:33.667.01:05:38.267 but I wonder if someone there could just sort of list 01:05:38.267.01:05:40.133 what won't be done rather than say, 01:05:40.133.01:05:42.501 "The high priorities will be done." 01:05:42.501.01:05:44.801 -Well, in fact, the... 01:05:44.801.01:05:48.100 Virtually all things will be done. 01:05:48.100.01:05:52.467 There is a complete replacement camera 01:05:52.467.01:05:54.000 to take even better images 01:05:54.000.01:05:56.067 than the ones you've been seeing today. 01:05:56.067.01:05:58.534 There is another instrument which is going up 01:05:58.534.01:06:01.334 that will simultaneously correct the other camera 01:06:01.334.01:06:02.767 and the other two spectrographs, 01:06:02.767.01:06:07.234 so all the capabilities will be fixed. 01:06:07.234.01:06:11.501 -We would like to have new instruments on the telescope 01:06:11.501.01:06:13.434 in the same way that you would not like 01:06:13.434.01:06:18.033 to have to use the television set 01:06:18.033.01:06:20.567 that you had bought 10 years ago. 01:06:20.567.01:06:22.534 We don't want to have to use the instruments 01:06:22.534.01:06:24.267 that were designed and built 01:06:24.267.01:06:28.000 and launched on the space telescope the first time, 01:06:28.000.01:06:29.968 but those instruments are not built yet, 01:06:29.968.01:06:31.634 the new generation, 01:06:31.634.01:06:34.234 and that will be for the next service mission, 01:06:34.234.01:06:36.467 when we'll have the best instruments 01:06:36.467.01:06:37.767 that we can build now, 01:06:37.767.01:06:39.400 but I think Dan is absolutely right. 01:06:39.400.01:06:43.234 Everything that we can imagine that we know how to fix now 01:06:43.234.01:06:44.567 will be fixed on this mission. 01:06:44.567.01:06:48.067 -Everything that we need to fix. -Yeah. 01:06:48.067.01:06:52.434 -Okay, any others in Toronto? -Yes, ma'am, one question. 01:06:52.434.01:06:53.667 Sorry. 01:06:53.667.01:06:56.734 -Go ahead, please. 01:06:56.734.01:07:00.801 -Yes, hello, Gander White from Space Canada News. 01:07:00.801.01:07:02.601 I would like to find out the significance 01:07:02.601.01:07:04.400 of the aurora observations 01:07:04.400.01:07:05.834 that have been taken with the Hubble 01:07:05.834.01:07:08.100 and significance of other planetary images 01:07:08.100.01:07:11.601 that have been done. 01:07:11.601.01:07:14.033 -The... Well, there are two different categories. 01:07:14.033.01:07:16.300 The significance of those auroral observations 01:07:16.300.01:07:18.000 are primarily going to be 01:07:18.000.01:07:19.534 in terms of helping to understand 01:07:19.534.01:07:21.100 the magnetosphere of Jupiter. 01:07:21.100.01:07:23.767 Jupiter has an extremely intense magnetic field, 01:07:23.767.01:07:27.734 a very, very extraordinary radiation belt surrounding it, 01:07:27.734.01:07:29.067 and trying to understand the mechanisms 01:07:29.067.01:07:32.267 whereby that magnetic field is guided and generated 01:07:32.267.01:07:35.367 is the fundamental underlying objective 01:07:35.367.01:07:36.734 of trying to understand the interaction 01:07:36.734.01:07:38.501 between Io and Jupiter. 01:07:38.501.01:07:40.601 In terms of the other imagine observations... 01:07:40.601.01:07:42.501 -And then thereby to shed light on our own... 01:07:42.501.01:07:45.167 -On our own magnetic field of the Earth, which we don't... 01:07:45.167.01:07:47.567 That's exactly right, which we don't understand either. 01:07:47.567.01:07:49.834 Other imaging observations of other planets, Saturn, 01:07:49.834.01:07:51.934 Mars and Jupiter are being undertaken. 01:07:51.934.01:07:54.300 It's kind of a weather-forecasting mechanism. 01:07:54.300.01:07:55.634 It's the... 01:07:55.634.01:07:57.133 Hubble Space Telescope is the only thing we have now 01:07:57.133.01:08:00.133 that can take good-quality imagery of the distant planets 01:08:00.133.01:08:02.434 because these Voyager flybys and so on 01:08:02.434.01:08:05.167 that produced images in the past are long gone. 01:08:05.167.01:08:06.634 So if we want to monitor the changes... 01:08:06.634.01:08:08.300 How do the cloud flows on Jupiter change? 01:08:08.300.01:08:10.467 How do these incredible storms get generated 01:08:10.467.01:08:12.100 in the atmosphere of Saturn? 01:08:12.100.01:08:13.868 What's the ozone layer on Mars like? 01:08:13.868.01:08:15.667 The only way we can learn these things 01:08:15.667.01:08:18.434 is by repeated imagery with Hubble Space Telescope, 01:08:18.434.01:08:19.934 and those are the kinds of observations 01:08:19.934.01:08:21.234 that are now being made 01:08:21.234.01:08:25.400 in terms of these planetary survey observations. 01:08:25.400.01:08:29.067 -And then looking to the future a little, with Hubble 01:08:29.067.01:08:30.767 in its present condition, 01:08:30.767.01:08:35.734 we have gotten the best pictures of Pluto and its moon, Charon, 01:08:35.734.01:08:38.934 that have ever been taken, 01:08:38.934.01:08:42.767 but they're not quite what we'd really like to understand 01:08:42.767.01:08:48.133 this most distant and possibly unusual planet. 01:08:48.133.01:08:51.000 Some people call it a double planet, 01:08:51.000.01:08:54.467 and with the improved viewing 01:08:54.467.01:08:58.100 we get from the repair mission with the replacement 01:08:58.100.01:09:00.067 Wide Field/Planetary Camera 01:09:00.067.01:09:02.934 and the COSTAR device that will improve the viewing, 01:09:02.934.01:09:05.701 the other onboard camera, the Faint Object Camera, 01:09:05.701.01:09:09.467 that we can begin to study 01:09:09.467.01:09:13.133 the markings on Jupiter 01:09:13.133.01:09:16.167 which are theorized to be areas where you do 01:09:16.167.01:09:19.434 or do not have frozen methane gas 01:09:19.434.01:09:23.901 that should gradually move around the planet 01:09:23.901.01:09:27.267 as distance from the Sun increases. 01:09:27.267.01:09:29.601 Pluto is going away from the Sun now, 01:09:29.601.01:09:31.868 and more methane freezes out, 01:09:31.868.01:09:35.467 so there's a lot to be done in the Solar System, 01:09:35.467.01:09:37.000 and our Dr. John Brand 01:09:37.000.01:09:40.267 is waiting for that bright comet to come by 01:09:40.267.01:09:44.634 that you can search for spectroscopically. 01:09:44.634.01:09:49.801 He hopes to detect the deuterium, 01:09:49.801.01:09:52.133 the heavy hydrogen, from the Big Bang in it 01:09:52.133.01:09:55.534 and tell us something about the origin of comets. 01:09:55.534.01:09:58.701 So I think the... 01:09:58.701.01:10:00.868 As to the significance of the auroral observations 01:10:00.868.01:10:03.367 on Jupiter, you have there, in Toronto, 01:10:03.367.01:10:07.100 one of the world's probably three or four great experts, 01:10:07.100.01:10:10.200 and he's maybe too modest to talk about it today 01:10:10.200.01:10:11.567 except on tape, 01:10:11.567.01:10:14.934 but I would say that John Caldwell 01:10:14.934.01:10:19.501 is not the only person who has attempted to photograph 01:10:19.501.01:10:22.501 the auroral oval on Jupiter, the ultraviolet light. 01:10:22.501.01:10:25.701 He's done it very successfully, and we're looking forward to him 01:10:25.701.01:10:27.601 analyzing those images and telling us 01:10:27.601.01:10:30.934 whether he can validate the theory 01:10:30.934.01:10:33.067 that the aurora on Jupiter 01:10:33.067.01:10:38.601 is controlled by particles from the volcano on its moon, Io. 01:10:38.601.01:10:41.100 -What I'd like to do now is close for the day, 01:10:41.100.01:10:44.901 and we'll run the 2-minute video highlighting images 01:10:44.901.01:10:48.234 that Hubble has taken over the past 2 years. 01:10:48.234.01:10:49.367 Thank you very much for coming. 01:10:49.367.01:10:51.133 I especially want to thank our panelists, 01:10:51.133.01:10:53.567 some of whom have carved time off from their holiday weekend 01:10:53.567.01:10:56.234 to be here with us. Thank you very much. 01:11:01.801.01:11:07.667 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:11:07.667.01:11:13.534 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:11:13.534.01:11:19.434 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:11:19.434.01:11:25.300 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:11:25.300.01:11:31.167 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:11:31.167.01:11:37.033 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:11:37.033.01:11:42.934 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:11:42.934.01:11:48.801 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:11:48.801.01:11:54.667 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:11:54.667.01:12:00.601 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:12:00.601.01:12:06.467 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:12:06.467.01:12:12.367 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:12:12.367.01:12:18.234 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:12:18.234.01:12:24.100 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:12:24.100.01:12:29.968 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:12:29.968.01:12:35.834 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:12:35.834.01:12:41.734 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:12:41.734.01:12:47.601 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:12:47.601.01:12:53.467 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:12:53.467.01:12:59.334 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:12:59.334.01:13:05.300 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:13:05.300.01:13:11.167 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:13:11.167.01:13:17.033 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:13:17.033.01:13:22.901 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:13:22.901.01:13:28.767 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:13:28.767.01:13:34.667 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:13:34.667.01:13:40.534 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:13:40.534.01:13:46.400 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:13:46.400.01:13:52.267 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:13:52.267.01:13:58.167 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:13:58.167.01:14:04.100 !!musiC@!!!musiC@! 01:14:04.100.01:14:09.968 !!musiC@!!!musiC@!