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"description": "This visualization presents several 'reference models' for studying Earth's ionosphere. It opens with a full-disk view of Earth, then zooms-in to a close-up view of Earth's limb and ionospheric data-driven models, over a fixed geographic location - off the Atlantic coast of South America.
Reference models are used to define well-established knowledge and facilitate mapping out areas for future exploration. The models might be described as semi-empirical, in that they are generated using many measurements at a varietly of locations, and those measurements are used to constrain a theoretical model which is used to estimate measurements at locations where an actual measurement is not available.
Three models important in ionospheric physics are presented in this visualization.
International Reference Ionosphere (IRI)
This model provides parameters such as electron temperature and density, ion temperature and the densities of various ions (O+, H+, He+, NO+, O2+). In this visualization, we display the atomic oxygen positive ion (a single atom ion) density at an altitude of 350 kilometers. On the limb of Earth, we present a vertical cross-section of the model, illustrating how the density varies with altitude and providing an altitude scale for comparison.
This dataset exhibits two notable characteristics.
- Daily variation: The oxygen ion density increases during the day and then decreases after nightfall. This is due to photoionization by solar ultraviolet light, which increases with sunrise to a maximum at local noon, and then decreases towards evening.
- Appleton Anomaly: One of the more striking features of the ion density is the daytime enhancement is split into two regions, distributed symmetrically above and below the magnetic equator. This feature was discovered by Edward Appleton in 1946. It is now understood to be an effect of the interaction of Earth's geomagnetic field with upper atmosphere electric fields, and often referred to as the 'fountain effect,' explained in 1965. The electric fields lift ions and electrons upward by E-cross-B drift (Plasma Zoo). At higher altitudes, the upward drift decreases and the geomagnetic field and gravity dominate the motion, guiding the charged particles earthward.
Horizontal Wind Model (HWM)
This model provides speed and direction of horizontal (parallel to Earth's surface) winds constructed from over 70 million ground-based and satellite measurements. Two altitude levels are displayed in this visualization: 350 kilometers (same altitude as the IRI oxygen ion data) in violet glyphs, and 100 kilometers (white glyphs). This model only extends to 60 degrees latitude, so there are gaps around the poles in this visualization.
One of the most notable characteristics in this dataset, particularly the 350 kilometer data, is how the winds are driven by the daily solar heating cycle. As the sun rises, the upper atmosphere is heated by solar ultraviolet light. This creates a high-pressure region which drives the atmosphere away from direct sunlight; westward in the morning and eastward in the afternoon. As the sun sets and the atmosphere cools, we see the wind reverse, filling in the now cooler and lower-pressure region.
International Geomagnetic Reference Field-12 (IGRF-12)
This model provides the structure of Earth's magnetic field which is a dominant influence on the motion of electrons and ions in the ionosphere. The geomagnetic field changes very slowly over decades. For this visualization, we display only a few field lines (golden wire-like structures) near the geomagnetic equator. As we observe the daily variation of the data, particularly the oxygen ions, we see the Appleton anomaly is hedged in by the low-latitude geomagnetic field.
References
- NOAA/National Geophysical Data Center. International Geomagnetic Reference Field
- Erwan Thebault, Christopher C. Finlay, et al. International Geomagnetic Reference Field: the 12th generation. Earth, Planets and Space 67:79 (2015)
- Dieter Bilitza. The International Reference Ionosphere - Status 2013. Advances in Space Research, Volume 55, p. 1914-1927 (2015)
- Douglas P. Drob, John T. Emmert, et al. An update to the Horizontal Wind Model (HWM): The quiet time thermosphere. Earth and Space Science, vol. 2, issue 7, pp. 301-319
- Edward V. Appleton. Two Anomalies in the Ionosphere. Nature, Volume 157, pp. 691 (1946)
- E. N. Bramley and M. Peart. Diffusion and electromagnetic drift in the equatorial F2-region. Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics, vol. 27, pp. 1201-1211 (1965)
- R.J. Moffett & W.B. Hanson. Effect of Ionization Transport on the Equatorial F-Region. Nature 206, pp705-706 (1965)
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{
"id": 4641,
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"page_type": "Infographic",
"title": "Terrestrial Atmosphere ITM (Ionosphere, Thermosphere, Mesosphere) Processes",
"description": "Large image version || Terrestrial_Atmos_ITM_Processes.jpg (3355x2205) [1.2 MB] || Terrestrial_Atmos_ITM_Processes_searchweb.png (320x180) [65.0 KB] || Terrestrial_Atmos_ITM_Processes_thm.png (80x40) [7.1 KB] || This graphic presents an overview of the physical processes that have been identified in Earth's upper atmosphere. || ",
"release_date": "2018-05-03T00:00:00-04:00",
"update_date": "2023-05-03T13:46:50.662126-04:00",
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{
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"page_type": "Visualization",
"title": "Interface to Space: The Equatorial Fountain",
"description": "Visualization illustrating the Fountain Effect of ions in the near-Earth electric and magnetic fields. || IRIConceptual.Limb2PullOut_OionFountainIGRF.noslate_CRTT.HD1080i.000660_print.jpg (1024x576) [114.5 KB] || IRIConceptual.Limb2PullOut_OionFountainIGRF.noslate_CRTT.HD1080i.000660_searchweb.png (320x180) [87.8 KB] || IRIConceptual.Limb2PullOut_OionFountainIGRF.noslate_CRTT.HD1080i.000660_thm.png (80x40) [7.2 KB] || 1920x1080_16x9_30p (1920x1080) [0 Item(s)] || IRIConceptual.Limb2PullOut_OionFountainIGRF.HD1080i_p30.mp4 (1920x1080) [32.1 MB] || IRIConceptual.Limb2PullOut_OionFountainIGRF.HD1080i_p30.webm (1920x1080) [4.2 MB] || 3840x2160_16x9_30p (3840x2160) [0 Item(s)] || IRIConceptual.Limb2PullOut_OionFountainIGRF_2160p30.mp4 (3840x2160) [96.1 MB] || IRIConceptual.Limb2PullOut_OionFountainIGRF.HD1080i_p30.mp4.hwshow [221 bytes] || ",
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"alt_text": "Visualization illustrating the Fountain Effect of ions in the near-Earth electric and magnetic fields.",
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"title": "GOLD Resources",
"description": "The Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk, or GOLD, mission is designed to explore the nearest reaches of space. Capturing never-before-seen images of Earth’s upper atmosphere, GOLD explores in unprecedented detail our space environment — which is home to astronauts, radio signals used to guide airplanes and ships, as well as satellites that provide communications and GPS systems. The more we know about the fundamental physics of this region of space, the more we can protect our assets there.Gathering observations from geostationary orbit above the Western Hemisphere, GOLD measures the temperature and composition of neutral gases in Earth’s thermosphere. This part of the atmosphere co-mingles with the ionosphere, which is made up of charged particles. Both the Sun from above and terrestrial weather from below can change the types, numbers, and characteristics of the particles found here — and GOLD helps track those changes.Activity in this region is responsible for a variety of key space weather events. GOLD scientists are particularly interested in the cause of dense, unpredictable bubbles of charged gas that appear over the equator and tropics, sometimes causing communication problems. As we discover the very nature of the Sun-Earth interaction in this region, the mission could ultimately lead to ways to improve forecasts of such space weather and mitigate its effects. || ",
"release_date": "2018-01-24T12:00:00-05:00",
"update_date": "2023-05-03T13:47:01.592504-04:00",
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"alt_text": "Canned interview with NASA Scientist Elsayed Talaat looking off camera. Soundbites are separated by slates. Full title: Elsayed Talaat, Heliophysics Chief Scientist, NASA Headquarters, Washington Complete transcript available.",
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{
"id": 4610,
"url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4610/",
"page_type": "Visualization",
"title": "GOLD: Instrument Scanning Coverage",
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"media_type": "Image",
"alt_text": "Visualization of GOLD orbiting Earth with image scanning. This version presents the singly-ionized oxygen density from the IRI model.",
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},
{
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"page_type": "Visualization",
"title": "Exploring Earth's Ionosphere: Limb view",
"description": "This visualization presents data on the concentration of the singly-ionized oxygen atom (rainbow color table, red is highest concentration), the low-latitude geomagnetic field (gold field lines) and the ionospheric winds at two altitude levels, 100km (white) and 350 km (violet). || IRIDaily.limb_OionHwindIGRF.clockSlate_CRTT.HD1080i.000750_print.jpg (1024x576) [101.4 KB] || IRIDaily.limb_OionHwindIGRF.clockSlate_CRTT.HD1080i.000750_thm.png (80x40) [5.0 KB] || IRIDaily.limb_OionHwindIGRF.clockSlate_CRTT.HD1080i.000750_searchweb.png (320x180) [62.5 KB] || IRIDaily.limb_OionHwindIGRF.HD1080i_p30.mp4 (1920x1080) [88.3 MB] || OionHwindIGRF (1920x1080) [0 Item(s)] || OionHwindIGRF (3840x2160) [0 Item(s)] || IRIDaily.limb_OionHwindIGRF.2160p30.webm (3840x2160) [12.4 MB] || IRIDaily.limb_OionHwindIGRF.2160p30.mp4 (3840x2160) [274.0 MB] || IRIDaily.limb_OionHwindIGRF.HD1080i_p30.mp4.hwshow [205 bytes] || ",
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"update_date": "2025-03-10T00:06:29.592499-04:00",
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"alt_text": "This visualization presents data on the concentration of the singly-ionized oxygen atom (rainbow color table, red is highest concentration), the low-latitude geomagnetic field (gold field lines) and the ionospheric winds at two altitude levels, 100km (white) and 350 km (violet).",
"width": 1024,
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},
{
"id": 4527,
"url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4527/",
"page_type": "Visualization",
"title": "ICON and GOLD: Instrument Scanning Coverage",
"description": "Visualization of ICON and GOLD orbiting Earth with image scanning. This version presents several geospace models, including the singly-ionized oxygen density, the low-latitude geomagnetic field, and the high-altitude winds (100km and 350km altitudes). || IRIGOLDscan.GOLDview3_OionHwindIGRF.clockSlate_CRTT.UHD3840.001140_print.jpg (1024x576) [130.5 KB] || IRIGOLDscan.GOLDview3_OionHwindIGRF.clockSlate_CRTT.UHD3840.001140_searchweb.png (320x180) [85.0 KB] || IRIGOLDscan.GOLDview3_OionHwindIGRF.clockSlate_CRTT.UHD3840.001140_thm.png (80x40) [5.9 KB] || IRIGOLDscan.GOLDview3_OionHwindIGRF.HD1080i_p30.mp4 (1920x1080) [82.0 MB] || IRIGOLDscan.GOLDview3_OionHwindIGRF (1920x1080) [0 Item(s)] || IRIGOLDscan.GOLDview3_OionHwindIGRF.HD1080i_p30.webm (1920x1080) [7.6 MB] || IRIGOLDscan.GOLDview3_OionHwindIGRF (3840x2160) [0 Item(s)] || IRIGOLDscan.GOLDview3_OionHwindIGRF_2160p30.mp4 (3840x2160) [258.1 MB] || ",
"release_date": "2016-12-14T14:00:00-05:00",
"update_date": "2025-03-09T22:29:33.296980-04:00",
"main_image": {
"id": 420103,
"url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a004500/a004527/IRIGOLDscan.GOLDview3_OionHwindIGRF.clockSlate_CRTT.UHD3840.001140_print.jpg",
"filename": "IRIGOLDscan.GOLDview3_OionHwindIGRF.clockSlate_CRTT.UHD3840.001140_print.jpg",
"media_type": "Image",
"alt_text": "Visualization of ICON and GOLD orbiting Earth with image scanning. This version presents several geospace models, including the singly-ionized oxygen density, the low-latitude geomagnetic field, and the high-altitude winds (100km and 350km altitudes).",
"width": 1024,
"height": 576,
"pixels": 589824
}
},
{
"id": 4498,
"url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4498/",
"page_type": "Visualization",
"title": "ICON and GOLD: Exploring the Interface to Space",
"description": "A basic view of the orbits for ICON (Ionospheric Connections Explorer) and GOLD (Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk). These missions will conduct measurements of ionospheric composition, ionization, and winds to better understand the connection between space weather and its terrestrial impacts.In this visualization, we present GOLD (in geostationary orbit around Earth) and ICON (in low Earth orbit). The colors over Earth represent model data from the IRI (International Reference Ionosphere) model of the density of the singly-ionized oxygen atom at an altitude of 350 kilometers. Red represents high density. The ion density is enhanced above and below the geomagnetic equator (not perfectly aligned with the geographic equator) on the dayside due to the ionizing effects of solar ultraviolet radiation combined with the effects of high-altitude winds and the geomagnetic field. || ",
"release_date": "2016-10-27T14:00:00-04:00",
"update_date": "2025-03-02T22:34:54.801413-05:00",
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"filename": "IRIDaily.SimplePushIn_O+ion.clockSlate_CRTT.UHD3840.000101_print.jpg",
"media_type": "Image",
"alt_text": "A simple view of the orbits for ICON and GOLD. This version interpolates the IRI model to a higher time cadence for a smoother animation.",
"width": 1024,
"height": 576,
"pixels": 589824
}
},
{
"id": 4503,
"url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4503/",
"page_type": "Visualization",
"title": "Exploring the Ionosphere: The View from GOLD",
"description": "Closeup view of Earth from the perspective of the GOLD instrument. This version interpolates the IRI model to a higher time cadence for a smoother animation. || IRIDaily.GOLDview_O+ion_O+ionSlice.clockSlate_CRTT.UHD3840.001002_print.jpg (1024x576) [50.7 KB] || IRIDaily.GOLDview_O+ion_O+ionSlice.IRIinterp.HD1080i_p30.mp4 (1920x1080) [56.7 MB] || IRI.interpolate (1920x1080) [0 Item(s)] || IRIDaily.GOLDview_O+ion_O+ionSlice.IRIinterp.HD1080i_p30.webm (1920x1080) [17.1 MB] || IRI.interpolate (3840x2160) [0 Item(s)] || IRIDaily.GOLDview_O+ion_O+ionSlice.IRIinterp_4503.key [57.9 MB] || IRIDaily.GOLDview_O+ion_O+ionSlice.IRIinterp_4503.pptx [57.6 MB] || IRIDaily.GOLDview_O+ion_O+ionSlice.IRIinterp_2160p30.mp4 (3840x2160) [200.2 MB] || ",
"release_date": "2016-10-27T14:00:00-04:00",
"update_date": "2025-03-02T22:34:54.839656-05:00",
"main_image": {
"id": 420062,
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"filename": "IRIDaily.GOLDview_O+ion_O+ionSlice.clockSlate_CRTT.UHD3840.001002_print.jpg",
"media_type": "Image",
"alt_text": "Closeup view of Earth from the perspective of the GOLD instrument. This version interpolates the IRI model to a higher time cadence for a smoother animation.",
"width": 1024,
"height": 576,
"pixels": 589824
}
},
{
"id": 4504,
"url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4504/",
"page_type": "Visualization",
"title": "Exploring the Ionosphere: The Dayside Ionosphere",
"description": "A view of the singly-ionizing oxygen atom on the dayside of Earth. This represents the variation of the enhancments due to variation in the geomagnetic field. This version interpolates the IRI model to a higher time cadence for a smoother animation. || IRIDaily.sunward_O+ion.clockSlate_CRTT.UHD3840.001001_print.jpg (1024x576) [58.1 KB] || IRIDaily.sunward_O+ion.IRIinterp.HD1080i_p30.mp4 (1920x1080) [50.1 MB] || IRI.interpolated (1920x1080) [0 Item(s)] || IRIDaily.sunward_O+ion.IRIinterp.HD1080i_p30.webm (1920x1080) [17.1 MB] || IRIDaily.sunward_O+ion.IRIinterp.UHD3840_2160p30.mp4 (3840x2160) [72.7 MB] || IRI.interpolated (3840x2160) [0 Item(s)] || IRIDaily.sunward_O+ion.IRIinterp_4504.key [51.9 MB] || IRIDaily.sunward_O+ion.IRIinterp_4504.pptx [51.6 MB] || exploring-the-ionosphere-the-dayside-ionosphere.hwshow [308 bytes] || ",
"release_date": "2016-10-27T14:00:00-04:00",
"update_date": "2025-03-09T00:06:14.577624-05:00",
"main_image": {
"id": 420087,
"url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a004500/a004504/IRIDaily.sunward_O+ion.clockSlate_CRTT.UHD3840.001001_print.jpg",
"filename": "IRIDaily.sunward_O+ion.clockSlate_CRTT.UHD3840.001001_print.jpg",
"media_type": "Image",
"alt_text": "A view of the singly-ionizing oxygen atom on the dayside of Earth. This represents the variation of the enhancments due to variation in the geomagnetic field. This version interpolates the IRI model to a higher time cadence for a smoother animation.",
"width": 1024,
"height": 576,
"pixels": 589824
}
}
],
"sources": [],
"products": [
{
"id": 12817,
"url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/12817/",
"page_type": "Produced Video",
"title": "Why NASA Is Exploring The Edge Of Our Planet",
"description": "The Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk, or GOLD, instrument launches aboard a commercial communications satellite in January 2018 to inspect the dynamic intermingling of space and Earth’s uppermost atmosphere. Together, GOLD and another NASA mission, Ionospheric Connection Explorer spacecraft, or ICON, will provide the most comprehensive of Earth’s upper atmosphere we’ve ever had.Above the ozone layer, the ionosphere is a part of Earth’s atmosphere where particles have been cooked into a sea of electrically-charged electrons and ions by the Sun’s radiation. The ionosphere is co-mingled with the very highest — and quite thin — layers of Earth’s neutral upper atmosphere, making this region an area that is constantly in flux undergoing the push-and-pull between Earth’s conditions and those in space. Increasingly, these layers of near-Earth space are part of the human domain, as it’s home not only to astronauts, but to radio signals used to guide airplanes and ships, and satellites that provide our communications and GPS systems. Understanding the fundamental processes that govern our upper atmosphere and ionosphere is crucial to improve situational awareness that helps protect astronauts, spacecraft and humans on the ground.GOLD, in geostationary orbit over the Western Hemisphere, will build up a full-disk view of the ionosphere and upper atmosphere every half hour, providing detailed large-scale measurements of related processes — a cadence which makes it the first mission to be able to monitor the true weather of the upper atmosphere. GOLD is also able to focus in on a tighter region and scan more quickly, to complement additional research plans as needed. || ",
"release_date": "2018-01-05T13:00:00-05:00",
"update_date": "2023-05-03T13:47:03.970975-04:00",
"main_image": {
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"filename": "GOLDOverview_YouTube.00001_print.jpg",
"media_type": "Image",
"alt_text": "Complete transcript available.Music credits: 'Faint Glimmer' by Andrew John Skeet [PRS], Andrew Michael Britton [PRS], David Stephen Goldsmith [PRS], 'Ocean Spirals' by Andrew John Skeet [PRS], Andrew Michael Britton [PRS], David Stephen Goldsmith [PRS] from Killer Tracks.Watch this video on the NASA Goddard YouTube channel.",
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],
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{
"id": 4594,
"url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4594/",
"page_type": "Visualization",
"title": "ICON Scans the Ionosphere",
"description": "ICON orbits Earth at 575 kilometers altitude, measuring the composition and motions of the ionosphere. || IRIDaily.limbwICON_OionHwindIGRF.clockSlate_CRTT.HD1080i.000870_print.jpg (1024x576) [105.7 KB] || IRIDaily.limbwICON_OionHwindIGRF.clockSlate_CRTT.HD1080i.000870_searchweb.png (320x180) [63.8 KB] || IRIDaily.limbwICON_OionHwindIGRF.clockSlate_CRTT.HD1080i.000870_thm.png (80x40) [5.0 KB] || 1920x1080_16x9_30p (1920x1080) [0 Item(s)] || IRIDaily.limbwICON_OionHwindIGRF.HD1080i_p30.mp4 (1920x1080) [76.4 MB] || IRIDaily.limbwICON_OionHwindIGRF.HD1080i_p30.webm (1920x1080) [10.9 MB] || 3840x2160_16x9_30p (3840x2160) [0 Item(s)] || IRIDaily.limbwICON_OionHwindIGRF.UHD3840_2160p30.mp4 (3840x2160) [217.4 MB] || IRIDaily.limbwICON_OionHwindIGRF.HD1080i_p30.mp4.hwshow [210 bytes] || ",
"release_date": "2017-10-31T10:00:00-04:00",
"update_date": "2025-03-10T00:07:07.530395-04:00",
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"url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a004500/a004594/IRIDaily.limbwICON_OionHwindIGRF.clockSlate_CRTT.HD1080i.000870_print.jpg",
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"alt_text": "ICON orbits Earth at 575 kilometers altitude, measuring the composition and motions of the ionosphere.",
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}